| 1952 |
|
| 1961 |
(663) Earlier, it is true, the United States
had excluded Chinese and most other Asiatics
by specific laws. |
| 1962 |
|
| 1963 |
|
| 1964a |
(524) There was continuing difficulty with
Japan because of discrimination against Japanese
immigrants on the Pacific Coast, and because
of Japanese ambition to expand on the continent
of Asia. On personal appeals from the President
and Bryan, the state of California revised
certain laws in order to reduce Japanese
resentment. |
| 1964b |
? |
| 1964c |
(377) Within a year after Japan's victory
over a great European power, the San Francisco
school board, in October, 1906, ordered the
segregation of Oriental school children.
This step was taken in response to the feelings
of Californians against the 500 to 1,000
Japanese immigrants coming in each year,
feelings which were intensified by lurid
"Yellow Peril" articles in the
Hearst and other newspapers. |
| 1964d |
(473-4) Some Californians had become alarmed
over the number of Japanese immigrants in
their state. It was argued that the Japanese
immigrants worked for very low wages and
were therefore taking jobs away from native-born
American workmen. As a result, resentment
against the Japanese grew rapidly in those
communities where they had settled. Because
of this feeling, the San Francisco school
board in 1906 decided to segregate Japanese
children in the school system. The government
of Japan protested immediately. The school
segregation order, it said, was an insult
to the Japanese people, since it seemed to
indicate that Japanese boys and girls were
not considered fit to associate with the
sons and daughters of Americans. |
| 1964e |
(528-9) Those who opposed the flood of newcomers
also argued that, by their willingness to
work for low pay, immigrants were lowering
wages for American workers. Limits are placed
upon the number of immigrants. As a result
of these fears a cry arose that immigration
should be restricted. Even as early as 1882
a law had been passed which forbade the immigration
of Chinese laborers. Californians, in particular,
objected to letting in Chinese, as well as
Japanese, because they were willing to work
for low wages. From time to time other laws
were made restricting immigration. In 1917,
for example, a law was passed barring immigrants
who could not read. |
| 1965 |
|
| 1966a |
(526-7) Those who opposed the flood of newcomers
also argued that, by their willingness to
work for low pay, immigrants were lowering
wages for American workers. Limits are placed
upon the number of immigrants. As a result
of these fears a cry arose that immigration
should be restricted. Even as early as 1882
a law had been passed which forbade the immigration
of Chinese laborers. Californians, in particular,
objected to letting in Chinese, as well as
Japanese, because they were willing to work
for low wages. From time to time other laws
were made restricting immigration. In 1917,
for example, a law was passed barring immigrants
who could not read. |
| 1966b |
? |
| 1966c |
|
| 1966d |
− |
| 1966e |
(592-3) Relations between Japan and the United
States are troubled. Japanese resentment
against the United States was further inflamed
by the treatment of Oriental immigrants on
our West Coast. As we saw in Chapter 22,
prejudice against Asians had resulted in
the exclusion of Chinese immigrants during
the late 1800's. Now politicians and labor
leaders were demanding a ban on Japanese
immigration, and western state legislatures
were passing laws discriminating against
Japanese already in the United States. The
situation came to a head in 1906, when the
San Francisco school board ordered all Japanese
children to attend a separate school. Newspapers
in Japan called this a national insult and
demanded action from Roosevelt. (593) An
immigration act in 1907 denied admission
to all Japanese who did not possess proper
passports. This law was interpreted to exclude
Japanese who came from island possessions
of the United States or from any country
other than Japan. |
| 1967a |
(535-7) When Americans began to fill up California,
they objected to further Chinese immigration
because the Chinese worked for such low wages.
For the same reason, Americans also objected
to Japanese immigration. In 1882, the United
States government passed a law forbidding
Chinese workers to enter the United States.
In 1907, the United States persuaded the
Japanese government to prohibit further Japanese
immigration to America. |
| 1967b |
|
| 1967c |
|
| 1968a |
− |
| 1968b |
|
| 1968c |
|
| 1969a |
|
| 1969b |
(456) After 1883, Japanese began to emigrate
in larger numbers. In order to prohibit Japanese
immigration, the United States government,
after considerable controversy and diplomatic
negotiations, persuaded the government of
Japan to prohibit the emigration of laborers
to the United States. Both of these restrictive
acts had been promoted by western states,
particularly by labor unions in the West.
They feared competition from Oriental workers
and claimed that Chinese and Japanese were
an alien race in a land peopled primarily
by Caucasians. (458) The Oriental communities
of the west coast showed many of the same
traits of enterprise and emphasis upon achievement
and intellectual accomplishment. Both Orientals
and Jews met greater discrimination as they
became more successful by American standards.
For example, California tried to restrict
Japanese land ownership at a time (1913)
when Japanese immigrants threatened to take
over large stretches of land, such as the
San Joaquin Valley. And, like Jews, Orientals
have contributed a disproportionately large
number of intellectuals and professional
people to the society. (588) The attitudes
and actions of some Americans who lived on
the West Coast threatened good relations
with Japan. In 1906, these Americans wished
to exclude Japanese immigrants and to establish
segregated public schools for Oriental children.
Japan protested the segregation vigorously. |
| 1969c |
|
| 1969d |
(180) New workers kept flowing in from Europe
and Asia. However, [eventually] immigration
quotas were set, first upon the immigration
of Chinese and Japanese, who, because of
their low living standards, hurt the white
labor market. |
| 1970 |
|
| 1971a |
|
| 1971b |
|
| 1972 |
(263) AN UNFAIR RULE. One day Kyo brought
home a note from her school principal. The
note said that a new rule had been passed
ordering all Japanese children to go to a
special Oriental school in Chinatown. The
note made the Sakamotos unhappy and angry.
Chinatown was miles away. There were no school
buses. How would Kyo get to school? Besides,
Kyo was just as much an American as any child
in her school. (264) "Because,"
the principal said, "so many workers
and farmers are angry with the Japanese.
They think the Japanese make prices and wages
go down. They are afraid that they will lose
their jobs because Japanese will work for
less. They demanded the rule. They don't
want Japanese immigrants to live in San Francisco." |
| 1973 |
(139) Japan's rapid rise to power aroused
fears of a "yellow peril" in which
a flood of Japanese immigrants, representing
a vast source of cheap labor, would deprive
white people of their jobs and in the process
destroy Western civilization. In the United
States, fears of this sort led the school
board of San Francisco to bar all Japanese
from the public schools in 1905. (164-5)
This phrase, which the Japanese had taken
from the Declaration of Independence of the
United States as well as President Wilson's
wartime speeches, was flatly rejected by
Wilson, as well as by Australia and certain
other Western countries. The leaders of these
nations were afraid that the idea that all
men are equal might be used by the Japanese
to strike down existing immigration restrictions.
Given the widespread talk of a "yellow
peril" that had followed Japan's victories
over China and Russia, immigration restrictions
appeared to be a very sore subject in the
West. |
| 1974 |
|
| 1975 |
− |
| 1976 |
− |
| 1978a |
− |
| 1978b |
(443) Since the 1890s, America's West Coast
had been attracting Japanese laborers. Whites
in California became alarmed, as they had
been a generation earlier by Chinese immigrants.
Then, following the San Francisco earthquake
of 1906, the city school board set up a separate,
segregated school for Oriental children.
Of course, this was a local matter over which
the federal government had no control. But
public opinion in Japan was outraged, and
the Japanese government soon let Washington
know it. |
| 1980 |
|
| 1981a |
|
| 1981b |
(313) The achievements of the Chinese Americans
and Japanese Americans were often resented
by other Americans, and this led to discrimination
in housing, employment, and education. |
| 1982a |
(303) Earlier, it is true, laws and international
agreements had excluded the Chinese, the
Japanese, and most other Asians. |
| 1982b |
|
| 1982c |
− |
| 1982d |
|
| 1982e |
|
| 1983a |
− |
| 1983b |
(165) The history of mistreatment of Japanese
in America is a long one. This was especially
true in the states on the West Coast, where
not only people but laws discriminated against
them. In 1913 California made it illegal
for Japanese aliens to own land in that state.
Under federal law, Japanese were the only
immigrants who could not become citizens,
although, of course, any of their children
born in the United States were citizens.
(160) Congressman Raker (California): No
one . . . can object to our taking time to
assimilate those who are here. . . . Instead
of that we find communities in this country
that are as foreign as to language and thought
as any city in any foreign land today. That
must be avoided, and now is the time to stop.
(326) Worse, in the face of a sharp increase
in Japanese immigration to the West Coast
of the United States, the American press
began to run racist stories about the threat
of the "yellow peril." In 1906
the San Francisco Board of Education ordered
that the ninety-three Japanese children in
that city must go to a separate school. This
segregation order was an insult to Japanese
racial pride, and stirred a storm of protest
in Japan. |
| 1983c |
(441) The history of mistreatment of Japanese
in America is a long one. This was especially
true in the states on the West Coast, where
not only people but laws discriminated against
them. In 1913 California made it illegal
for Japanese aliens to own land in that state.
Under federal law, Japanese were the only
immigrants who could not become citizens.
although, of course, any of their children
born in the United States were citizens.
(436) Congressman Raker (California): No
one . . . can object to our taking time to
assimilate those who are here. . . . Instead
of that we find communities in this country
that are as foreign as to language and thought
as any city in any foreign land today. That
must be avoided, and now is the time to stop.
(639) Worse, in the face of a sharp increase
in Japanese immigration to the West Coast
of the United States, the American press
began to run racist stories about the threat
of the "yellow peril." In 1906
the San Francisco Board of Education ordered
that the ninety-three Japanese children in
that city must go to a separate school. This
segregation order was an insult to Japanese
racial pride, and stirred a storm of protest
in Japan. |
| 1983d |
|
| 1984 |
(338) Troubles with Japan boiled to the surface
in 1906 when the San Francisco School Board
reflecting the anti-Orientalism of the West
Coast, segregated all Chinese, Koreans, and
Japanese in a special school. Japan protested
this discrimination against its citizens. |
| 1985a |
(598) The Japanese government objected to
the treatment of Japanese immigrants who
had been settling in growing numbers in California
and other Pacific states. California was
demanding exclusion of the immigrants and
was taking steps to prevent them from owning
land. San Francisco was segregating them
in its schools. Newspapers warned of the
"Yellow Peril," and there was even
talk of a possible Japanese-American war. |
| 1985b |
(492) The outcome of the Russian-Japanese
peace talks in 1905 was not the only cause
for anger between the Japanese and the Americans.
The treatment of Japanese immigrants in California
contributed to ill feelings between the United
States and Japan. Many state and local laws
in California treated Asians unfairly. Californians
felt that laborers from China, Japan, and
Korea would take American jobs because the
Asians would work for less pay. In 1906 the
San Francisco school board refused to allow
Chinese, Korean, and Japanese children to
attend regular public schools. Instead, the
board sent them to separate schools. |
| 1985c |
− |
| 1986a |
− |
| 1986b |
(767) Earlier laws and international agreements
had excluded the Chinese, the Japanese, and
other Asians. |
| 1986c |
|
| 1986d |
|
| 1986e |
− |
| 1986f |
(370) Some native-born Americans, those born
in America, were prejudiced against newcomers.
They did not like people who spoke different
languages, dressed differently, or had different
customs. Some native-born Americans felt
the immigrants could never become Americans
as the people before them had done. They
were also afraid the newcomers would take
away their jobs. . . . On the West Coast,
the people talked of a "yellow danger."
The Chinese and Japanese immigrants were
often driven from their homes. (499) They,
too, found many white Americans to be anti-Asian.
The U.S, government pressured Japan to slow
down Japanese immigration. In 1924 a new
U.S. immigration law cut it off altogether.
Despite these hardships, native-born Japanese
Americans (Nisei) tried to get ahead by going
to school. As relations between the United
States and Japan grew worse in the 1930s,
the distrust of Japanese Americans grew. |
| 1987a |
|
| 1987b |
− |
| 1988 |
|
| 1989a |
? |
| 1989b |
|
| 1990a |
(540) When Japanese immigration to the United
States increased as a result of the Russo-Japanese
War, a wave of anti-Japanese agitation swept
the West Coast. Many Americans resented the
Asian newcomers because they competed for
jobs and seemed so different in their customs
and beliefs. In 1906, the San Francisco Board
of Education placed the city's 93 Asian pupils
in a separate school. |
| 1990b |
? |
| 1990c |
(600) World War I had stirred feelings of
hatred and intolerance for the enemy. These
feelings did not die out when the war ended.
With the enemy defeated, some people's feelings
of hostility were turned against other targets
racial and religious minorities, political
ideas, and immigrants to the United States. |
| 1990d |
(699) Like the earlier Chinese immigrants,
they were met with nativist hostility and
discrimination. Japanese workers were barred
from factory jobs and shunted off to agricultural
labor in California fields and orchards.
In 1906, the San Francisco school board,
claiming that Japanese children were "crowding
the whites out of the schools," segregated
them into separate schools and asked Roosevelt
to persuade Japan to stop the emigration
of its people. |
| 1990e |
|
| 1991 |
(460) Native-born Americans soon protested
this influx of workers, and western states
passed laws discriminating against the Japanese.
The situation came to a head in 1906. In
that year San Francisco's mayor, Eugene Schmitz,
ordered that Japanese (as well as Chinese
and Korean) students be placed in a separate
"Oriental Public School." Newspapers
in Japan called this an insult, and anti-American
riots broke out. |
| 1992a |
− |
| 1992b |
|
| 1992c |
(265) SEVERAL MOVEMENTS COALESCED in the
early 1920s to make possible the passage
of laws stemming the flood of immigrants
from Europe, Ireland, and Asia, a flood that
had been transforming America's big cities
since before the Civil War. Emerging from
a costly world war, many Americans feared
that the millions of new immigrants would
take jobs from the native-born. |
| 1992d |
(580) They had strong racial, religious,
and ethnic prejudices. In fact, they wanted
to cut down immigration from Russia, Poland,
Italy, and the other countries of eastern
and southern Europe. The nation had been
enriched by the thousands who had come here
from those countries between 1890 and 1910.
But the restrictionists had an odd theory
of their own about "superior" and
"inferior" races. They pretended
that it was a science. Really it was only
a way of dressing up their prejudices. |
| 1992e |
(580) They had strong racial, religious,
and ethnic prejudices. In fact, they wanted
to cut down immigration from Russia, Poland,
Italy, and the other countries of eastern
and southern Europe. The nation had been
enriched by the thousands who had come here
from those countries between 1890 and 1910.
But the restrictionists had an odd theory
of their own about "superior" and
"inferior" races. They pretended
that it was a science. Really it was only
a way of dressing up their prejudices. |
| 1992f |
|
| 1992g |
(289) After the Russo-Japanese War, Japanese
immigration to the United States had increased.
In reaction, a wave of anti-Japanese feeling
swept the West Coast. Many Americans resented
the Asian newcomers because they competed
for jobs and had unfamiliar customs and beliefs.
In 1906, the San Francisco Board of Education
placed the city's 93 Asian pupils, some of
whom were young adults, in a separate school.
Japan protested this as a racial insult.
(292) In California, legislators seeking
favor with local growers and labor groups
had passed a law barring noncitizens from
owning land. Japanese immigrants, the chief
targets of the law, protested angrily. Never
an aggressive opponent of racism, President
Wilson played down the issue. In doing so,
he ignored a treaty obligation to deal fairly
with Japanese immigrants. But public outrage
in Japan moved the President to act. |
| 1993a |
(558) Americans of Color. Within that majority
were Japanese, Chinese, and Korean immigrants
who were denied the chance to become citizens
by the Naturalization Act of 1790, which
limited that right to persons who were "white."
Asian immigrants were also targets of race
prejudice of particular severity on the West
Coast. The children of those immigrants,
citizens by virtue of their birth in the
United States, suffered along with their
parents. (581) In California anti-Japanese
feeling rose. In 1906 San Francisco segregated
Asian schoolchildren. The proud Japanese
protested officially to Washington. |
| 1993b |
− |
| 1994a |
(272) Meanwhile, Japan's emergence as a great
power increased anxiety on the West Coast
about the "yellow peril." In October
1906 the San Francisco Board of Education
ordered that the ninety-three Japanese children
in the city be segregated in a separate school. |
| 1994b |
(695-6) Like the earlier Chinese immigrants,
they were met with nativist hostility and
discrimination. Japanese workers were barred
from factory jobs and shunted off to agricultural
labor in California fields and orchards.
In 1906, the San Francisco school board,
claiming that Japanese children were "crowding
the whites out of the schools," segregated
them into separate schools and asked Roosevelt
to persuade Japan to stop the emigration
of its people. |
| 1994c |
(498) In many ways, the history of the Japanese
in the United States is a study of prejudice
and intolerance. In the 1880s, California
farmers looked to Japan as a new Source of
cheap labor. In response, thousands of Japanese
flocked to the United States. In 1880, only
150 Japanese lived in California. By 1910,
the number had climbed to 90,000. United
States law said these immigrants, called
Issei, could never become citizens. However,
their children who were born in the United
States, or Nisei, were citizens. . . . As
Japanese prospered, white Californians felt
economically threatened and often attacked
them. In 1906, San Francisco required Japanese
Students to attend segregated Schools. |
| 1994d |
|
| 1995a |
− |
| 1995b |
|
| 1995c |
− |
| 1996a |
(625) In 1906, rising Japanese immigration
led San Francisco school authorities to place
the city's 93 Asian students in a separate
school. In Japan citizens talked of war over
the insult. |
| 1996b |
(433) Japanese-American relations also became
tense over the treatment of Japanese citizens
in the United States. In 1906, the San Francisco
School Board, reflecting the anti-Asian bias
of many West Coast Americans, ordered the
segregation of all Chinese, Koreans, and
Japanese in a special school. Tokyo protested
the discrimination against its citizens. |
| 1996c |
|
| 1996d |
− |
| 1996e |
|
| 1997a |
|
| 1997b |
(284) Some opponents of immigration claimed
to have scientific evidence proving that
some racial or ethnic groups were superior
to others. In particular they asserted that
the Anglo-Saxon and Nordic peoples of northern
and western Europe were smarter, stronger,
and more moral than the Slavs and Mediterranean
peoples of southern and eastern Europe. Jews,
African Americans, and Asians, they claimed,
were even more inferior. (301) In addition
to shifting the balance of power in China,
the settlement of the Russo-Japanese War
also had worldwide implications for racial
politics. That an Asian people, the Japanese,
had humiliated a white people, the Russians,
kindled new national and racial pride in
both the Chinese and the Japanese. Japan
reacted by protesting the 1906 segregation
of Japanese children in San Francisco schools. |
| 1998a |
(797) Japanese nationalists resented the
peace treaty. Their anger surfaced in a protest
lodged, of all places, against the San Francisco
school board. In 1906, rising Japanese immigration
led San Francisco school authorities to place
the city's 93 Asian students in a separate
school. In Japan citizens talked of war over
the insult. |
| 1998b |
− |
| 1998c |
(715) Like the earlier Chinese immigrants,
they were met with nativist hostility and
discrimination. Japanese workers were barred
from factory jobs and shunted off to agricultural
labor in California fields and orchards.
In 1906, the San Francisco school board,
claiming that Japanese children were "crowding
the whites out of the schools," segregated
them into separate schools and asked Roosevelt
to persuade Japan to stop the emigration
of its people. |
| 1999a |
− |
| 1999b |
(629) Some Japanese nationalists resented
the peace treaty for curbing Japan's ambitions
in Asia. Their anger surfaced in a protest
lodged, of all places, against the San Francisco
school board. In 1906, rising Japanese immigration
led San Francisco school authorities to place
the city's 93 Asian students in a separate
school. In Japan citizens talked of war over
the insult. |
| 1999c |
(555) Whites in the West, especially organized
labor, had come to view Japanese immigrants
in much the same way as they had earlier
viewed immigrants from China. (659) An order
by the San Francisco school board stipulated
that students of Japanese parentage were
to attend the city's segregated Chinese school.
The Japanese government protested what it
considered a serious insult, and Japanese
newspaper headlines even hinted of war. |
