| 1952 |
|
| 1961 |
|
| 1962 |
|
| 1963 |
|
| 1964a |
(649) That this forced "relocation"
was probably unnecessary was shown by the
loyalty of Japanese-Americans in Hawaii during
the war, and by the fine fighting record
of "Nisei" (Japanese-American)
troops. |
| 1964b |
|
| 1964c |
(616) Yet Japanese-Americans in Hawaii were
left unmolested without incident throughout
the war. A total of 17,600 Japanese-Americans
served in the armed forces. Their units,
especially in Italy, established outstanding
records for bravery under fire. |
| 1964d |
|
| 1964e |
|
| 1965 |
|
| 1966a |
|
| 1966b |
|
| 1966c |
|
| 1966d |
− |
| 1966e |
(741) Despite this discrimination, many Americans
of Japanese ancestry served with honor and
courage in the United States armed forces. |
| 1967a |
|
| 1967b |
|
| 1967c |
|
| 1968a |
− |
| 1968b |
|
| 1968c |
|
| 1969a |
|
| 1969b |
|
| 1969c |
|
| 1969d |
|
| 1970 |
|
| 1971a |
|
| 1971b |
|
| 1972 |
|
| 1973 |
|
| 1974 |
(758) Driven from their homes into these
American versions of concentration camps,
these loyal Japanese Americans needlessly
suffered loss of their freedom, homes, land,
and dignity. This unfair treatment did not
deter over 33,000 Japanese Americans from
enlisting and fighting bravely for the United
States. |
| 1975 |
− |
| 1976 |
− |
| 1978a |
− |
| 1978b |
|
| 1980 |
|
| 1981a |
|
| 1981b |
(314) The record of Asian Americans' loyalty
to their new nation has been outstanding.
During both world wars, Chinese Americans
and Japanese Americans worked and fought
in their nation's defense. For example, the
all-Japanese-American 442nd Regimental Combat
Team became one of the most highly decorated
combat units in World War II. This was despite
the fact that the families of most of these
soldiers were being held in relocation centers.
Following World War II, Chinese Americans,
Japanese Americans, Fillipino Americans,
and other Americans of Asian ancestry became
part of the nation's postwar boom. Today,
Asian Americans have achieved success in
the arts, the sciences, education, and industry.
In addition, newly arriving immigrants from
Asia are bringing their skills and abilities,
which are helping our society to grow and
prosper. [Pictures] Japanese American troops
advancing in Italy during World War II ?
1943. Internment camp for Japanese Americans
? 1942. |
| 1982a |
(338) Yet there had never been any real proof
that these Japanese Americans had been disloyal.
Indeed, nearly all of the Nisei remained
loyal, patriotic American citizens despite
their harsh, unfair treatment. Many of those
allowed to serve in the armed forces distinguished
themselves for bravery. |
| 1982b |
(635) Despite this treatment, many citizens
of Japanese ancestry joined the armed forces.
They served with great distinction. Many
gave their lives. |
| 1982c |
− |
| 1982d |
|
| 1982e |
(620) Despite this bitter experience, almost
all the Japanese in America expressed only
a desire to prove their loyalty. Moreover,
8000 Nisei -- children born in the United
States of Japanese parentage -- enlisted
in the armed forces, such as the infantry
of the much decorated 442nd Regimental Combat
Team. (620) [Picture] In all, 8000 Japanese-Americans
joined the armed services despite the loss
of their civil liberties a home. The 442nd
Combat Team posed for this photograph in
1944, while receiving citations for bravery. |
| 1983a |
− |
| 1983b |
(167) "Go for Broke." Even as the
Japanese Americans on the West Coast were
being herded into camps, others were joining
the United States Army. In Hawaii alone,
16,000 Americans of Japanese descent were
drafted into the Army. More than three times
that many eventually served in the United
States armed forces in World War II. At first
the Army did not accept Nisei (American-born
offspring of Japanese immigrants). When it
changed its policy, thousands -- determined
to prove their loyalty to the United States
-- signed up. Among them were over a thousand
young men who were living in the relocation
centers! The most famous Nisei units during
the war were the 100th Infantry Battalion
and the 442nd Regimental Combat Team. These
units fought in Europe, first in Italy and
then in France. From September 1943 to early
February 1944, the 100th was in action almost
continuously. In June 1944 the 100th became
a unit of the 442nd, which went into action
at that time in Italy. The members of this
combat team fought with a bravery and reckless
heroism that was summed up in their battle
cry, "Go for Broke." They took
heavy casualties: more than 1,700 killed
and nearly 5,000 wounded. They were also
among the most decorated units in the United
States Army. Commenting on the heroism of
the Japanese Americans, General Joseph Stilwell,
one of the outstanding generals of World
War II, declared. "The Nisei bought
an awfully big hunk of America with their
blood." In later years many who served
in the 100th and 442nd held important positions
in private and public life. Both Daniel Inouye
and Spark Matsunaga, United States senators
from Hawaii as these words are written, proudly
count themselves as "graduates"
of the 442nd. (167) [Picture] In 1944, General
Mark Clark and Navy Secretary James Forrestal
review Nisei Troops in Italy. |
| 1983c |
(443) "Go for Broke." Even as the
Japanese Americans on the West Coast were
being herded into camps, others were joining
the United States Army. In Hawaii alone,
16,000 Americans of Japanese descent were
drafted into the Army. More than three times
that many eventually served in the United
States armed forces in World War II. At first
the Army did not accept Nisei (American-born
offspring of Japanese immigrants). When it
changed its policy, thousands -- determined.
to prove their loyalty to the United States
-- signed up. Among them were over a thousand
young men who were living in the relocation
centers! The most famous Nisei units during
the war were the 100th Infantry Battalion
and the 442nd Regimental Combat Team. These
units fought in Europe, first in Italy and
then in France. From September 1943 to early
February 1944, the 100th was in action almost
continuously. In June 1944 the 100th became
a unit of the 442nd, which went into action
at that time in Italy. The members of this
combat team fought with a bravery and reckless
heroism that was summed up in their battle
cry, "Go for Broke." They took
heavy casualties: more than 1,700 killed
and nearly 5,000 wounded. They were also
among the most decorated units in the United
States Army. Commenting on the heroism of
the Japanese Americans, General Joseph Stilwell,
one of the outstanding generals of World
War II, declared. "The Nisei bought
an awfully big hunk of America with their
blood." In later years many who served
in the 100th and 442nd held important positions
in private and public life. Both Daniel Inouye
and Spark Matsunaga, United States senators
from Hawaii as these words are written, proudly
count themselves as "graduates"
of the 442nd. (443) [Picture] In 1944, General
Mark Clark and Navy Secretary James Forrestal
review Nisei Troops in Italy. |
| 1983d |
− |
| 1984 |
|
| 1985a |
(734) Yet 17,600 Japanese Americans served
in the armed forces of the United States,
many of them distinguishing themselves for
outstanding bravery under fire. |
| 1985b |
(573) In 1943 the American military finally
agreed to accept Japanese Americans into
service. Thousands of them enlisted, including
1200 men from detention camps. Their war
record was outstanding. None of the Japanese
Americans in the camps were ever found to
pose a threat to the country. |
| 1985c |
(250) In June, 1941, before America's official
entry into World War II, Fred Korematsu tried
to enlist in the Navy. Although the Navy
was actively recruiting men in anticipation
of entering the war, the service did not
allow Korematsu, an American citizen of Japanese
ancestry, to enlist. |
| 1986a |
− |
| 1986b |
(807) Yet there had never been any real proof
that these Japanese Americans had been disloyal.
Indeed, nearly all of the Nisei remained
loyal, patriotic American citizens despite
their harsh, unfair treatment. Many of those
allowed to serve in the armed forces distinguished
themselves for bravery. |
| 1986c |
(634) At first, Japanese Americans were barred
from serving in the military. Later, this
policy was changed. More than 10,000 Japanese
Americans volunteered for service. Many were
cited for their bravery. One unit of Japanese
Americans used the slogan "Go for broke!"
It became a popular rallying cry across the
nation. |
| 1986d |
− |
| 1986e |
− |
| 1986f |
(499-500) Despite this unfair treatment,
many young Japanese Americans volunteered
to serve in the armed forces. They had an
outstanding record, especially in the fighting
against Italy. 14. World War II proved to
be a turning point for most Asian Americans.
During the war, many Chinese Americans found
work in the nation's airplane plants and
factories. Japanese Americans fought bravely
in Europe. |
| 1987a |
− |
| 1987b |
− |
| 1988 |
(619) Despite this mistreatment, the Nisei
showed their loyalty to America. Thousands
of Nisei were allowed to fight against the
Germans. Many of them received medals for
bravery. |
| 1989a |
(634) At first, Japanese Americans were barred
from serving in the military. Later, this
policy was changed. More than 10,000 Japanese
Americans volunteered for service. Many were
cited for their bravery. One unit of Japanese
Americans used the slogan "Go for broke!"
It became a popular rallying cry across the
nation. SECTION REVIEW. What Do You Think?
Why do you think Japanese Americans were
the only group forced to live in relocation
camps? |
| 1989b |
− |
| 1990a |
(674) Despite this unfair and humiliating
treatment, Japanese Americans remained loyal
to their country. More than 1,200 internees
petitioned the President to give them a chance
to serve. They were allowed to form the 100th
Infantry Battalion, which became one of the
most highly decorated fighting units in United
States military history. (674) Even so, thousands
of young Japanese Americans volunteered for
the United States armed forces. The mother
at right, interned with her younger son in
a "temporary" camp, proudly displays
a picture of her son in the United States
Army. |
| 1990b |
(571) Despite this humiliating treatment,
1200 men volunteered from the camps to serve
in the United States armed forces. In a segregated
unit these soldiers in the 442nd Regimental
Combat Team fought heroically in Italy. Another
Japanese American battalion was recruited
from Hawaii, where there was no internment
because there were so many Japanese. |
| 1990c |
(665) In fact, when it was finally decided
to accept Japanese Americans into service
in 1943, thousands of them signed up. One
of their groups, the 442nd Regimental Combat
Team, was the most decorated combat force
in the army. Its motto, "Go for broke,"
accurately described the reckless bravery
of its members in combat in Italy and France.
(665) [Picture] General Mark Clark presents
heroism awards to the Japanese American 442nd
Combat Team. *Why did some Americans find
this regiment's achievements surprising? |
| 1990d |
(863) One 6-year-old kept asking his mother
to "take him back to America."
He thought his relocation center was in Japan.
The evacuation of the Japanese-Americans
appears in retrospect to have been unjustified.
Even in Hawaii, where a much larger Japanese
population existed, the government attempted
no evacuation, and no sabotage and little
disloyalty occurred. The government allowed
Japanese-American men to volunteer for military
service, and many served bravely in the European
theater. The 442nd Infantry Combat Team,
made up entirely of nisei, became the most
decorated unit in all the military service
another indication of the loyalty and patriotism
of the Japanese-Americans. |
| 1990e |
(647-8) In positive ways the American people
proved themselves ready and willing to fight
a worldwide conflict. Army and navy recruiting
offices were flooded with volunteers, including
the 350,000 women who served in the American
armed forces. Meanwhile, on the home front,
women stepped in to fill jobs left by men
in arms. They also took many newly created
jobs in heavy industry and war plants where
they built airplanes and fighting ships. |
| 1991 |
(613) Like some 33,000 other Japanese Americans,
Peter Ota eventually joined the armed forces.
Beginning in 1943 the American government
began recruiting Japanese Americans for military
service. Nisei (nee-SAY) battalions -- units
made up of second-generation Japanese Americans
-- served with distinction on European battlefields. |
| 1992a |
− |
| 1992b |
|
| 1992c |
(290) Some young men won release from the
camps by joining the U.S. Army. The remainder,
however, were forced to stay in the camps
until President Roosevelt rescinded the evacuation
order and closed the camps in 1945. |
| 1992d |
(677) Despite this humiliating treatment,
1200 men volunteered from the camps to serve
in the United States armed forces. In a segregated
unit these soldiers in the 442nd Regimental
Combat Team fought heroically in Italy. Another
Japanese American battalion was recruited
from Hawaii, where there was no internment
because there were so many Japanese. |
| 1992e |
(677) Despite this humiliating treatment,
1200 men volunteered from the camps to serve
in the United States armed forces. In a segregated
unit these soldiers in the 442nd Regimental
Combat Team fought heroically in Italy. Another
Japanese American battalion was recruited
from Hawaii, where there was no internment
because there were so many Japanese. |
| 1992f |
|
| 1992g |
(674) Like some 30,000 other young Japanese
Americans, Peter eventually served in the
armed forces. He spent his leaves visiting
his father and sister in the camps. . . .
The Outcome. Even though they were treated
unfairly, Japanese Americans remained loyal
to their country. More than 1,200 young Japanese
American men petitioned the President to
give them a chance to serve. They formed
the 100th Infantry Battalion. It became one
of the most highly decorated fighting units
in United States military history. (See "An
Incident on the Italian Front" on page
792.) (792) Early in 1943, the United States
Army announced that it would accept 4,000
Japanese-American volunteers to form a combat
team. (It became the most decorated American
military unit.) Among the first to sign up
was Daniel Inouye, a young Hawaiian. During
a German grenade attack, Inouye lost his
right arm. Years later, he became a United
States senator. In the following excerpt
from his autobiography, he describes an incident
during the fighting in Italy. (793-4) VOCABULARY:
Before you read the selection, find the meaning
of these words in a dictionary: laceration,
malevolent, spasmodically. I never got used
to it. Deep down, I think no one did. We
pretended to be calloused and insensitive
because we understood the fatal consequence
of caring too much. You were no good to your
men; you were through as a soldier if you
cared too much. But hidden in the core of
every man's being, there must have been a
wound, a laceration of the spirit, and the
abrasives of war rubbed against it every
day and you thought that even if you lived,
and the years passed, it would never stop
bleeding. One morning I was leading a forward
patrol along a gentle slope toward an ancient
farmhouse that sat deserted and glaring in
the sun. Only it wasn't deserted. We were
barely thirty yards away when a machine gun
spat fire from a darkened window and my lead
scout was all but cut in half. The rest of
us hit the ground and I hollered for the
bazooka while bullets from that dark window
kept seeking us out in steady; disciplined
bursts of six. With a whoosh and a glowing
roar, our rocket tore into the weathered
frames of the house and it sagged crazily,
and the machine gun was still. We ran forward
in the sun, throwing grenades as we closed
on that malevolent window, crashing inside
before the dust of the explosion had fairly
settled. Two of the Germans were dead, torn
to shapeless hulks by the bazooka. The third,
an ammo [ammunition] bearer, I guess, had
been thrown back across the room, and he
lay sprawled against the wall, nearly senseless,
one leg shredded and twisted completely around.
"Kamerad" [comrade], he whispered,
smiling sadly "Kamerad." I think
I felt sorry for him. I don't know. I was
thinking about my scout, lying dead out there
in the sun. Anyhow, it didn't matter. He
reached into his tunic and I thought he was
going for a gun -- it was war; you only had
one chance to make the right decision --
and I pumped the last three shots in my rifle
clip into his chest. He jerked each time,
and the last time, as he toppled over, his
hand sprang spasmodically out from his tunic,
and he held up a snapshot, clutching it in
death. There was a woman in it, a pretty
woman, and two little kids, and there was
a handwritten inscription: "Deine Dichliebende
Frau, Heidi."* [*German for "Your
loving wife, Heidi."] So I had made
a widow and two orphans. I had to secure
the farmhouse and get a message back for
a burial detail to come get our man. I had
a lot to think about. But sooner or later,
you know, there comes the time when a man
has to face up to whatever it is that's hanging
back there on the rim of his conscience.
I never remembered that German's face, only
his hand clutching the picture. For days
I fought the image down, but it kept returning
and, at last, when they pulled us back to
a rest area, I went to see the Chaplain,
Hiro Higuchi. "How can I help you, Dan?"
He looked as desolate as I felt. "I
don't know." I shrugged. "I guess
I just wanted to talk to somebody."
"I know. I know how it must be."
We were quiet for a while, then I said. "The
thing is, it's as though there were two Dan
Inouyes, Chaplain. One of me is damn proud
of the kind of soldier I am. I'm a good squad
leader. I'm tough. I do my job." "But?"
"But I can't get used to it, killing
other men. Chaplain, I was brought up in
the kind of house where we had an obligation
to a hungry dog or a sick cat. My parents
are gentle people, they never lifted a hand
to any of us kids. I believe that thou shalt
not kill." "Don't ever stop believing
it, Dan," he said urgently. "Listen,
this is not our way. We are fighting because
we have to. Our enemy does believe in killing.
He has killed millions of blameless people
already, and he will kill us if we do not
defend ourselves and our liberty. There is
no making peace with madmen. This is what
you must remember. You must fight -- yes,
and kill -- to protect the kind of life that
helped you grow up to hate killing."
I left his tent and walked in the darkness
for a while. It was good to talk with someone
about it. I felt better. And then as I picked
my way over the stony terrain toward my own
area, I remembered my father sitting next
to me on that crowded bus to Nuuanu,* and
the plea in his voice when he said, "Do
not bring dishonor on our name." [*Nuuanu
was the Hawaiian town where Inouye first
reported for duty.] And if there was one
thing I knew for sure, it was which side
honor was on. [From the book, JOURNEY To
WASHINGTON by Senator Daniel K. Inouye with
Lawrence Elliott C 1967. used by permission
of the publisher, Prentice Hall/A division
of Simon & Schuster, Inc., Englewood
Cliffs, N.J. 07632.] THINKING ABOUT THE SELECTION.
1. Why did Inouye and his fellow soldiers
pretend to be calloused? 2. Why did Inouye
shoot the wounded German? 3. Defending a
Position Do you agree with the advice the
chaplain gave Inouye? Why or why not? |
| 1993a |
|
| 1993b |
− |
| 1994a |
(357) Despite such hysterical racial repression,
many units of Nisei (Americans of Japanese
descent) performed heroically in the United
States armed forces. |
| 1994b |
(865) One 6-year-old kept asking his mother
to "take him back to America."
He thought his relocation center was in Japan.
The evacuation of the Japanese-Americans
appears in retrospect to have been unjustified.
Even in Hawaii, where a much larger Japanese
population existed, the government attempted
no evacuation, and no sabotage and little
disloyalty occurred. The government allowed
Japanese American men to volunteer for military
service, and many served bravely in the European
theater. The 442nd Infantry Combat Team,
made up entirely of nisei, became the most
decorated unit in all the military service-another
indication of the loyalty and patriotism
of the Japanese-Americans. |
| 1994c |
(498) [Picture] Despite the bitter experience
of their internment during World War II,
Japanese Americans today are proud of their
loyalty to the United States. (563) Despite
this harsh treatment, thousands of Japanese
Americans in the armed forces served loyally. |
| 1994d |
(81) USING A GRAPH: THE ARMED FORCES IN WORLD
WAR II. Many different groups of Americans
helped our country during World War II. African
Americans, Hispanic Americans, Japanese Americans,
and women served in branches of the armed
forces. A. INTERPRETING A BAR GRAPH. The
bar graph below shows the participation of
groups of Americans in the armed forces during
World War II. Look at the bar graph carefully.
Use your textbook and the graph to answer
the following questions. 1. How many groups
of Americans are shown in the bar graph?
Name them. 3: African Americans, women, Japanese
Americans. |
| 1995a |
− |
| 1995b |
(228) (11) At first, Japanese-Americans,
called Nisei, were not allowed to volunteer
for the armed forces. (12) When they were
given that privilege in 1943, they offered
their services by the thousands as soldiers,
spies, and translators. (13) They were willing
to fight for their country even though they
had been badly treated by it. (14) As members
of the armed forces, the Nisei established
records that have seldom, if ever, been equaled.
(15) The all-Nisei 442nd Combat Team earned
more medals and citations for bravery that
any other unit in World War II. (16) Bradford
Smith, in his book called American from Japan,
tells how useful the Nisei were as soldiers,
spies, and translators. (17) For example,
Smith tells of the bravery of one Japanese-American,
Terry Doi. (18) Terry Doi was one of the
first soldiers to land on Iwo Jima. (19)
He took a flashlight with him as he went
into cave after cave. (20) He tried to persuade
the enemy to surrender. (21) He saved many
American lives this way at the risk of his
own. |
| 1995c |
− |
| 1996a |
(759) Some Japanese Americans protested,
especially when government officials circulated
a loyalty questionnaire that asked Nisei
citizens if they would be willing to serve
in the armed forces. "What do they take
us for? Saps?" asked Dunks Oshima, a
camp prisoner. "First, they change my
army status to 4-C [enemy alien] because
of my ancestry; run me out of town, and now
they want me to volunteer for a suicide squad
so I could get killed for this damn democracy."
Yet thousands of Nisei did enlist, and many
distinguished themselves in combat. |
| 1996b |
|
| 1996c |
|
| 1996d |
− |
| 1996e |
|
| 1997a |
(305) The Japanese remained in those camps
for over three years. There were strikes,
petitions, mass meetings, refusal to sign
loyalty oaths, riots against the camp authorities.
The Japanese Michi Weglyn was a young girl
when her family experienced evacuation and
detention. She tells (Years of Infamy) of
bungling in the evacuation, of misery, but
also of resistance. It was a war waged by
a government whose chief beneficiary despite
volumes of reforms -- was a wealthy elite.
By 1941 three-fourths of the value of military
contracts were handled by fifty-six large
corporations. Of $1 billion spent on scientific
research in industry, $400 million went to
ten large corporations. |
| 1997b |
(509) Hispanics were the most decorated of
American ethnic groups, while the Japanese
American 442nd Regiment was the most decorated
unit. Japanese American soldiers fought loyally
during the war in spite of the severe discrimination
suffered by their families back home. |
| 1998a |
(963-4) Some Japanese within the camps protested,
especially when government officials circulated
a loyalty questionnaire that asked Nisei
citizens if they would be willing to serve
in the armed forces. "What do they take
us for? Saps?" asked Dunks Oshima, a
camp prisoner. "First, they change my
army status to 4-C [enemy alien] because
of my ancestry, run me out of town, and now
they want me to volunteer for a suicide squad
so I could get killed for this damn democracy.
That's going some, for sheer brass!"
Yet thousands of Nisei did enlist, and many
distinguished themselves in combat. |
| 1998b |
− |
| 1998c |
(887) One 6 year-old kept asking his mother
to "take him back to America."
He thought his relocation center was in Japan.
The evacuation of the Japanese Americans
appears in retrospect to have been unjustified.
Even in Hawaii, where a much larger Japanese
population existed, the government attempted
no evacuation, and no sabotage and little
disloyalty occurred. The government allowed
Japanese American men to volunteer for military
service, and many served bravely in the European
theater. The 442nd Infantry Combat Team,
made up entirely of nisei, became the most
decorated unit in all the military service
-- another indication of the loyalty and
patriotism of the Japanese Americans. |
| 1999a |
− |
| 1999b |
(764) Some Japanese Americans protested,
especially when government officials circulated
a loyalty questionnaire that asked Nisei
citizens if they would be willing to serve
in the armed forces. "What do they take
us for? Saps?" asked Dunks Oshima, a
camp prisoner. "First, they change my
army status to 4-C [enemy alien] because
of my ancestry, run me out of town, and now
they want me to volunteer for a suicide squad
so I could get killed for this damn democracy!"
Yet thousands of Nisei did enlist, and many
distinguished themselves in combat. |
| 1999c |
(836) Some internees were able to leave the
camps by working outside, supplying much-needed
labor, especially farm work. By the fall
of 1942, one-fifth of all males had left
the camps to work. Others volunteered for
military service, the other escape route
from the camps. Japanese-American units served
in both the Pacific and Europe. The most
famous unit was the four-thousand-man 442nd
Regimental Combat Team, which saw action
in Italy, France, and Germany. The men of
the 442nd were among the most decorated in
the U.S. Army (see Individual Choices: Daniel
Ken Inouye). |
