[1952]
[1961] (663) Earlier, it is true, the United States had excluded
Chinese and most other Asiatics by specific laws.
[1962]
[1963]
[1964a] (524) There was continuing difficulty with Japan because of
discrimination against Japanese immigrants on the Pacific Coast, and because of
Japanese ambition to expand on the continent of Asia. On personal appeals from
the President and Bryan, the state of California revised certain laws in order
to reduce Japanese resentment.
[1964b] ？
[1964c] (377) Within a year after Japan's victory over a great European
power, the San Francisco school board, in October, 1906, ordered the
segregation of Oriental school children. This step was taken in response to the
feelings of Californians against the 500 to 1,000 Japanese immigrants coming in
each year, feelings which were intensified by lurid "Yellow Peril"
articles in the Hearst and other newspapers.
[1964d] (473-4) Some
Californians had become alarmed over the number of Japanese immigrants in their
state. It was argued that the Japanese immigrants worked for very low wages and
were therefore taking jobs away from native-born American workmen. As a result, resentment
against the Japanese grew rapidly in those communities where they had settled.
Because of this feeling, the San Francisco school board in 1906 decided to
segregate Japanese children in the school system. The government of Japan
protested immediately. The school segregation order, it said, was an insult to
the Japanese people, since it seemed to indicate that Japanese boys and girls
were not considered fit to associate with the sons and daughters of Americans.
[1964e] (528-9) Those who opposed the flood of newcomers also argued that,
by their willingness to work for low pay, immigrants were lowering wages for
American workers. Limits are placed upon the number of immigrants. As a result
of these fears a cry arose that immigration should be restricted. Even as early
as 1882 a law had been passed which forbade the immigration of Chinese
laborers. Californians, in particular, objected to letting in Chinese, as well
as Japanese, because they were willing to work for low wages. From time to time
other laws were made restricting immigration. In 1917, for example, a law was
passed barring immigrants who could not read.
[1965]
[1966a] (526-7) Those who opposed the flood of newcomers also argued that,
by their willingness to work for low pay, immigrants were lowering wages for
American workers. Limits are placed upon the number of immigrants. As a result
of these fears a cry arose that immigration should be restricted. Even as early
as 1882 a law had been passed which forbade the immigration of Chinese laborers.
Californians, in particular, objected to letting in Chinese, as well as
Japanese, because they were willing to work for low wages. From time to time
other laws were made restricting immigration. In 1917, for example, a law was
passed barring immigrants who could not read.
[1966b] ？
[1966c]
[1966d] −
[1966e] (592-3) Relations between Japan and the United States are troubled.
Japanese resentment against the United States was further inflamed by the
treatment of Oriental immigrants on our West Coast. As we saw in Chapter 22,
prejudice against Asians had resulted in the exclusion of Chinese immigrants
during the late 1800's. Now politicians and labor leaders were demanding a ban
on Japanese immigration, and western state legislatures were passing laws
discriminating against Japanese already in the United States. The situation
came to a head in 1906, when the San Francisco school board ordered all
Japanese children to attend a separate school. Newspapers in Japan called this
a national insult and demanded action from Roosevelt. (593) An immigration act
in 1907 denied admission to all Japanese who did not possess proper passports.
This law was interpreted to exclude Japanese who came from island possessions
of the United States or from any country other than Japan.
[1967a] (535-7) When Americans began to fill up California, they objected to
further Chinese immigration because the Chinese worked for such low wages. For
the same reason, Americans also objected to Japanese immigration. In 1882, the
United States government passed a law forbidding Chinese workers to enter the
United States. In 1907, the United States persuaded the Japanese government to
prohibit further Japanese immigration to America.
[1967b]
[1967c]
[1968a] −
[1968b]
[1968c]
[1969a]
[1969b] (456) After 1883, Japanese began to emigrate in larger numbers. In
order to prohibit Japanese immigration, the United States government, after
considerable controversy and diplomatic negotiations, persuaded the government
of Japan to prohibit the emigration of laborers to the United States. Both of
these restrictive acts had been promoted by western states, particularly by
labor unions in the West. They feared competition from Oriental workers and
claimed that Chinese and Japanese were an alien race in a land peopled
primarily by Caucasians. (458) The Oriental communities of the west coast
showed many of the same traits of enterprise and emphasis upon achievement and
intellectual accomplishment. Both Orientals and Jews met greater discrimination
as they became more successful by American standards. For example, California
tried to restrict Japanese land ownership at a time (1913) when Japanese
immigrants threatened to take over large stretches of land, such as the San
Joaquin Valley. And, like Jews, Orientals have contributed a disproportionately
large number of intellectuals and professional people to the society. (588) The
attitudes and actions of some Americans who lived on the West Coast threatened
good relations with Japan. In 1906, these Americans wished to exclude Japanese
immigrants and to establish segregated public schools for Oriental children.
Japan protested the segregation vigorously.
[1969c]
[1969d] (180) New workers kept flowing in from Europe and Asia. However,
[eventually] immigration quotas were set, first upon the immigration of Chinese
and Japanese, who, because of their low living standards, hurt the white labor
market.
[1970]
[1971a]
[1971b]
[1972] (263) AN UNFAIR RULE. One day Kyo brought home a note
from her school principal. The note said that a new rule had been passed
ordering all Japanese children to go to a special Oriental school in Chinatown.
The note made the Sakamotos unhappy and angry. Chinatown was miles away. There
were no school buses. How would Kyo get to school? Besides, Kyo was just as
much an American as any child in her school. (264) "Because," the
principal said, "so many workers and farmers are angry with the Japanese.
They think the Japanese make prices and wages go down. They are afraid that
they will lose their jobs because Japanese will work for less. They demanded
the rule. They don't want Japanese immigrants to live in San Francisco."
[1973] (139) Japan's rapid rise to power aroused fears of a
"yellow peril" in which a flood of Japanese immigrants, representing
a vast source of cheap labor, would deprive white people of their jobs and in
the process destroy Western civilization. In the United States, fears of this
sort led the school board of San Francisco to bar all Japanese from the public
schools in 1905. (164-5) This phrase, which the Japanese had taken from the
Declaration of Independence of the United States as well as President Wilson's
wartime speeches, was flatly rejected by Wilson, as well as by Australia and
certain other Western countries. The leaders of these nations were afraid that
the idea that all men are equal might be used by the Japanese to strike down
existing immigration restrictions. Given the widespread talk of a "yellow
peril" that had followed Japan's victories over China and Russia,
immigration restrictions appeared to be a very sore subject in the West.
[1974]
[1975] −
[1976] −
[1978a] −
[1978b] (443) Since the 1890s, America's West Coast had been attracting
Japanese laborers. Whites in California became alarmed, as they had been a
generation earlier by Chinese immigrants. Then, following the San Francisco
earthquake of 1906, the city school board set up a separate, segregated school
for Oriental children. Of course, this was a local matter over which the federal
government had no control. But public opinion in Japan was outraged, and the
Japanese government soon let Washington know it.
[1980]
[1981a]
[1981b] (313) The achievements of the Chinese Americans and Japanese
Americans were often resented by other Americans, and this led to
discrimination in housing, employment, and education.
[1982a] (303) Earlier, it is true, laws and international agreements
had excluded the Chinese, the Japanese, and most other Asians.
[1982b]
[1982c] −
[1982d]
[1982e]
[1982f]
[1983a] −
[1983b] (165) The history of mistreatment of Japanese in America is a long
one. This was especially true in the states on the West Coast, where not only
people but laws discriminated against them. In 1913 California made it illegal
for Japanese aliens to own land in that state. Under federal law, Japanese were
the only immigrants who could not become citizens, although, of course, any of
their children born in the United States were citizens. (160) Congressman Raker
(California): No one . . . can object to our taking time to assimilate those
who are here. . . . Instead of that we find communities in this country that
are as foreign as to language and thought as any city in any foreign land
today. That must be avoided, and now is the time to stop. (326) Worse, in the
face of a sharp increase in Japanese immigration to the West Coast of the
United States, the American press began to run racist stories about the threat
of the "yellow peril." In 1906 the San Francisco Board of Education
ordered that the ninety-three Japanese children in that city must go to a
separate school. This segregation order was an insult to Japanese racial pride,
and stirred a storm of protest in Japan.
[1983c] (441) The history of mistreatment of Japanese in America is a long
one. This was especially true in the states on the West Coast, where not only
people but laws discriminated against them. In 1913 California made it illegal
for Japanese aliens to own land in that state. Under federal law, Japanese were
the only immigrants who could not become citizens. although, of course, any of
their children born in the United States were citizens. (436) Congressman Raker
(California): No one . . . can object to our taking time to assimilate those
who are here. . . . Instead of that we find communities in this country that
are as foreign as to language and thought as any city in any foreign land
today. That must be avoided, and now is the time to stop. (639) Worse, in the
face of a sharp increase in Japanese immigration to the West Coast of the
United States, the American press began to run racist stories about the threat
of the "yellow peril." In 1906 the San Francisco Board of Education
ordered that the ninety-three Japanese children in that city must go to a
separate school. This segregation order was an insult to Japanese racial pride,
and stirred a storm of protest in Japan.
[1983d]
[1984] (338) Troubles with Japan boiled to the surface in 1906
when the San Francisco School Board reflecting the anti-Orientalism of the West
Coast, segregated all Chinese, Koreans, and Japanese in a special school. Japan
protested this discrimination against its citizens.
[1985a] (598) The Japanese government objected to the treatment of Japanese
immigrants who had been settling in growing numbers in California and other
Pacific states. California was demanding exclusion of the immigrants and was
taking steps to prevent them from owning land. San Francisco was segregating
them in its schools. Newspapers warned of the "Yellow Peril," and
there was even talk of a possible Japanese-American war.
[1985b] (492) The outcome of the Russian-Japanese peace talks in
1905 was not the only cause for anger between the Japanese and the Americans.
The treatment of Japanese immigrants in California contributed to ill feelings
between the United States and Japan. Many state and local laws in California
treated Asians unfairly. Californians felt that laborers from China, Japan, and
Korea would take American jobs because the Asians would work for less pay. In
1906 the San Francisco school board refused to allow Chinese, Korean, and
Japanese children to attend regular public schools. Instead, the board sent
them to separate schools.
[1985c] −
[1986a] −
[1986b] (767) Earlier laws and international agreements had excluded the
Chinese, the Japanese, and other Asians.
[1986c]
[1986d]
[1986e] −
[1986f] (370) Some native-born Americans, those born in America, were
prejudiced against newcomers. They did not like people who spoke different
languages, dressed differently, or had different customs. Some native-born
Americans felt the immigrants could never become Americans as the people before
them had done. They were also afraid the newcomers would take away their jobs.
. . . On the West Coast, the people talked of a "yellow danger." The
Chinese and Japanese immigrants were often driven from their homes. (499) They,
too, found many white Americans to be anti-Asian. The U.S, government pressured
Japan to slow down Japanese immigration. In 1924 a new U.S. immigration law cut
it off altogether. Despite these hardships, native-born Japanese Americans
(Nisei) tried to get ahead by going to school. As relations between the United
States and Japan grew worse in the 1930s, the distrust of Japanese Americans
grew.
[1987a]
[1987b] −
[1988]
[1989a] ？
[1989b]
[1990a] (540) When Japanese immigration to the United States increased as a
result of the Russo-Japanese War, a wave of anti-Japanese agitation swept the
West Coast. Many Americans resented the Asian newcomers because they competed
for jobs and seemed so different in their customs and beliefs. In 1906, the San
Francisco Board of Education placed the city's 93 Asian pupils in a separate
school.
[1990b] ？
[1990c] (600) World War I had stirred feelings of hatred and intolerance for
the enemy. These feelings did not die out when the war ended. With the enemy
defeated, some people's feelings of hostility were turned against other targets
racial and religious minorities, political ideas, and immigrants to the United
States.
[1990d] (699) Like the earlier Chinese immigrants, they were met with
nativist hostility and discrimination. Japanese workers were barred from
factory jobs and shunted off to agricultural labor in California fields and
orchards. In 1906, the San Francisco school board, claiming that Japanese
children were "crowding the whites out of the schools," segregated
them into separate schools and asked Roosevelt to persuade Japan to stop the
emigration of its people.
[1990e]
[1991] (460) Native-born Americans soon protested this influx
of workers, and western states passed laws discriminating against the Japanese.
The situation came to a head in 1906. In that year San Francisco's mayor,
Eugene Schmitz, ordered that Japanese (as well as Chinese and Korean) students
be placed in a separate "Oriental Public School." Newspapers in Japan
called this an insult, and anti-American riots broke out.
[1992a] −
[1992b]
[1992c] (265) SEVERAL MOVEMENTS COALESCED in the early 1920s to make
possible the passage of laws stemming the flood of immigrants from Europe,
Ireland, and Asia, a flood that had been transforming America's big cities
since before the Civil War. Emerging from a costly world war, many Americans
feared that the millions of new immigrants would take jobs from the
native-born.
[1992d] (580) They had strong racial, religious, and ethnic prejudices. In
fact, they wanted to cut down immigration from Russia, Poland, Italy, and the
other countries of eastern and southern Europe. The nation had been enriched by
the thousands who had come here from those countries between 1890 and 1910. But
the restrictionists had an odd theory of their own about "superior"
and "inferior" races. They pretended that it was a science. Really it
was only a way of dressing up their prejudices.
[1992e] (580) They had strong racial, religious, and ethnic prejudices. In
fact, they wanted to cut down immigration from Russia, Poland, Italy, and the
other countries of eastern and southern Europe. The nation had been enriched by
the thousands who had come here from those countries between 1890 and 1910. But
the restrictionists had an odd theory of their own about "superior"
and "inferior" races. They pretended that it was a science. Really it
was only a way of dressing up their prejudices.
[1992f]
[1992g] (289) After the Russo-Japanese War, Japanese immigration to
the United States had increased. In reaction, a wave of anti-Japanese feeling
swept the West Coast. Many Americans resented the Asian newcomers because they
competed for jobs and had unfamiliar customs and beliefs. In 1906, the San
Francisco Board of Education placed the city's 93 Asian pupils, some of whom
were young adults, in a separate school. Japan protested this as a racial
insult. (292) In California, legislators seeking favor with local growers and
labor groups had passed a law barring noncitizens from owning land. Japanese
immigrants, the chief targets of the law, protested angrily. Never an
aggressive opponent of racism, President Wilson played down the issue. In doing
so, he ignored a treaty obligation to deal fairly with Japanese immigrants. But
public outrage in Japan moved the President to act.
[1992h]
[1993a] (558) Americans of Color. Within that majority
were Japanese, Chinese, and Korean immigrants
who were denied the chance to become citizens
by the Naturalization Act of 1790, which
limited that right to persons who were "white."
Asian immigrants were also targets of race
prejudice of particular severity on the West
Coast. The children of those immigrants,
citizens by virtue of their birth in the
United States, suffered along with their
parents. (581) In California anti-Japanese
feeling rose. In 1906 San Francisco segregated
Asian schoolchildren. The proud Japanese
protested officially to Washington.
[1993b] −
[1994a] (272) Meanwhile, Japan's emergence as a great power increased
anxiety on the West Coast about the "yellow peril." In October 1906
the San Francisco Board of Education ordered that the ninety-three Japanese
children in the city be segregated in a separate school.
[1994b] (695-6) Like the earlier Chinese immigrants, they were met with
nativist hostility and discrimination. Japanese workers were barred from
factory jobs and shunted off to agricultural labor in California fields and
orchards. In 1906, the San
Francisco school board, claiming that Japanese children were "crowding the
whites out of the schools," segregated them into separate schools and
asked Roosevelt to persuade Japan to stop the emigration of its people.
[1994c] (498) In many ways, the history of the Japanese in the United States
is a study of prejudice and intolerance. In the 1880s, California farmers
looked to Japan as a new Source of cheap labor. In response, thousands of
Japanese flocked to the United States. In 1880, only 150 Japanese lived in
California. By 1910, the number had climbed to 90,000. United States law said
these immigrants, called Issei, could never become citizens. However, their
children who were born in the United States, or Nisei, were citizens. . . . As
Japanese prospered, white Californians felt economically threatened and often
attacked them. In 1906, San Francisco required Japanese Students to attend
segregated Schools.
[1994d]
[1995a] −
[1995b]
[1995c] −
[1996a] (625) In 1906, rising Japanese immigration led San Francisco school
authorities to place the city's 93 Asian students in a separate school. In
Japan citizens talked of war over the insult.
[1996b] (433) Japanese-American relations also became tense over the
treatment of Japanese citizens in the United States. In 1906, the San Francisco
School Board, reflecting the anti-Asian bias of many West Coast Americans,
ordered the segregation of all Chinese, Koreans, and Japanese in a special
school. Tokyo protested the discrimination against its citizens.
[1996c]
[1996d] −
[1996e]
[1997a]
[1997b] (284) Some opponents of immigration claimed to have scientific
evidence proving that some racial or ethnic groups were superior to others. In
particular they asserted that the Anglo-Saxon and Nordic peoples of northern
and western Europe were smarter, stronger, and more moral than the Slavs and
Mediterranean peoples of southern and eastern Europe. Jews, African Americans,
and Asians, they claimed, were even more inferior. (301) In addition to
shifting the balance of power in China, the settlement of the Russo-Japanese
War also had worldwide implications for racial politics. That an Asian people,
the Japanese, had humiliated a white people, the Russians, kindled new national
and racial pride in both the Chinese and the Japanese. Japan reacted by
protesting the 1906 segregation of Japanese children in San Francisco schools.
[1998a] (797) Japanese nationalists resented the peace treaty. Their anger
surfaced in a protest lodged, of all places, against the San Francisco school
board. In 1906, rising Japanese immigration led San Francisco school
authorities to place the city's 93 Asian students in a separate school. In
Japan citizens talked of war over the insult.
[1998b] −
[1998c] (715) Like the earlier Chinese immigrants, they were met with
nativist hostility and discrimination. Japanese workers were barred from
factory jobs and shunted off to agricultural labor in California fields and
orchards. In 1906, the San Francisco school board, claiming that Japanese
children were "crowding the whites out of the schools," segregated
them into separate schools and asked Roosevelt to persuade Japan to stop the
emigration of its people.
[1999a] −
[1999b] (629) Some Japanese nationalists resented the peace treaty for
curbing Japan's ambitions in Asia. Their anger surfaced in a protest lodged, of
all places, against the San Francisco school board. In 1906, rising Japanese
immigration led San Francisco school authorities to place the city's 93 Asian
students in a separate school. In Japan citizens talked of war over the insult.
[1999c] (555) Whites in the West, especially organized labor, had come to
view Japanese immigrants in much the same way as they had earlier viewed
immigrants from China. (659) An order by the San Francisco school board
stipulated that students of Japanese parentage were to attend the city's
segregated Chinese school. The Japanese government protested what it considered
a serious insult, and Japanese newspaper headlines even hinted of war.
[2000a] (276) By 1910 Japanese farmers were producing 70 percent of
California's strawberries. By 1940 they grew 95 percent of its snap beans as
well as spring and summer celery; and they actively cultivated a host of other
crops. As Colonel John Irish, president of the California Delta Association,
commented in 1921, Californians had seen the Japanese convert the barren land
like that at Florin and Livingston into productive and profitable fields,
orchards and vineyards, by the persistence and intelligence of their industry.
They had seen the hardpan and goose lands in the Sacramento Valley, gray and
black with our two destructive alkalis, cursed with barrenness like the fig
tree of Bethany, and not worth paying taxes on, until Ikuta, [a Japanese
immigrant], decided that those lands would raise rice. After years of
persistent toil, and enduring heartbreaking losses and disappointments, he
conquered that rebellious soil and raised the first commercial crop of rice in
California.
[2000b] −