[1952]
[1961]
[1962]
[1963]
[1964a]
[1964b]
[1964c] (615-6) Some 117,000 people, two thirds of them United States
citizens, were abruptly herded behind barbed wire and later shipped into ten
relocation centers in wild and disagreeable areas. These people suffered the
loss of at least 40 per cent of their possessions and for several years were
barred from lucrative employment.
[1964d]
[1964e]
[1965]
[1966a]
[1966b]
[1966c]
[1966d] −
[1966e]
[1967a]
[1967b]
[1967c]
[1968a] −
[1968b]
[1968c]
[1969a]
[1969b] (667) These American citizens had to sell their property (usually at
a loss) or lose it entirely and move into camps until the end of the war.
[1969c]
[1969d]
[1970]
[1971a]
[1971b]
[1972]
[1973]
[1974] (757-8) The country paid not only a high cost in human
life but also a certain moral cost for its victory. For the Japanese attack on
Pearl Harbor led to what the American Civil Liberties Union called "the
worst single invasion of citizens' liberties" during the war. This was the
confining in relocation centers of 112,000 Japanese Americans (more than half
of them born in the United States). (758) [Picture] Japanese American children
are shown saluting the flag in their San Francisco elementary school two days
before their relocation to internment camps.
[1975] −
[1976] −
[1978a] −
[1978b]
[1980]
[1981a]
[1981b] (609) Although the internment camps were little better than prisons,
most Japanese Americans remained loyal to the United States. During the war
years there were no acts of disloyalty or sabotage by Japanese Americans. Nisei
soldiers fought bravely in both Europe and in the Pacific. Nonetheless, their
families were forced to remain in the internment camps throughout the war
years. And they continued to experience discrimination when the war ended.
[1982a] (338) This fear was soon turned against the Nisei -- native-born
Americans whose ancestors came from Japan. As a result, most Japanese Americans
-- the great majority of whom lived in California -- were forced to leave their
homes and were taken to detention camps in other states, where they were
imprisoned until the end of the war. Most of the Nisei lost their homes and
businesses.
[1982b] (636) Was the treatment of Japanese Americans during World War II
legal? Most were American-born citizens. None had been accused of a crime. How
then could the government force them to quit their jobs, move them to a
different area, and confine them in relocation camps? Doesn't the Bill of
Rights (Amendment 4) make people "secure in their persons, houses, papers,
and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures"? The answers to
these questions make one pause to think.
[1982c] −
[1982d]
[1982e] (619-20) In April 1942, with strong support from the local
authorities, the army ordered all West Coast Japanese to prepare in 48 hours
for removal to "relocation centers." These centers were similar to
prison camps. Forced to sell their homes and property at once, for whatever
price offered, the Japanese-Americans obeyed. It is important to note that
neither the 264,000 German aliens nor the 599,000 Italian aliens living in the
United States were subject to a similar policy. By August 1942, there were
109,650 Japanese-Americans assembled, awaiting the completion of ten internment
camps located in desolate, isolated areas of the country. Anyone who had at
least one great-grandparent who was Japanese was interned.
[1982f]
[1983a] −
[1983b] (166) A shameful episode. Pressed by the Army and a hysterical
public, President Roosevelt reluctantly agreed to the removal of more than
110,000 persons of Japanese ancestry from the western states. Most of them were
Nisei -- sons and daughters of immigrant Japanese parents, themselves born in
the United States and therefore American citizens. Some were even
third-generation Americans.
[1983c] (441-2) A shameful episode. Pressed by the Army and a hysterical
public, President Roosevelt reluctantly agreed to the removal of more than
110,000 persons of Japanese ancestry from the western states. Most of them were
Nisei -- sons and daughters of immigrant Japanese parents, themselves born in
the United States and therefore American citizens. Some were even
third-generation Americans.
[1983d] −
[1984] (425) The exception was the internment in
"relocation centers" of more than 110,000 Japanese-Americans. Of
these people, 70,000 were Nisei, or native-born citizens of the United States.
Charges of criminal behavior were never brought against them; none were ever
indicted or tried, though civilian courts were open and accessible. The Supreme
Court upheld the government's policy of internment. In wartime, the Court said
in the Hirabayashi ruling (1943), "residents having ethnic affiliations
with an invading enemy may be a greater source of danger than those of
different ancestry." And in the Korematsu case (1944), the Court, with
three justices dissenting, approved the removal of the Nisei from the West
Coast. One dissenter, Justice Frank Murphy, denounced the decision as the
"legalization of racism." In an even more ominous appraisal, Circuit
Court Judge William Denman had written, "the identity of this doctrine
with that of the Hitler generals . . . justifying the gas chambers of Dachau is
unmistakable." (425) [Picture] Branded members of an enemy race by the
government, more than 110,000 Japanese-Americans were rounded up and shipped to
internment camps. These people were among the 18,000 Japanese-Americans sent to
a race track at Santa Anita, California, where they lived in horses' stalls.
National Archives.
[1985a] (734) Some 117,000 persons, two-thirds of them United States
citizens, were shipped to ten relocation centers in desolate parts of the
country.
[1985b] (573) Two
thirds of these people forced to move were American citizens. They became
prisoners in their own country.
[1985c] (249) With
a few exceptions, all of these citizens had been born and raised in the United
States. The overwhelming majority of them had never seen Japan. Virtually all
of them spoke English. These Japanese-Americans considered themselves loyal
American citizens. Over
thirty-five thousand Japanese immigrants also lived on the West Coast. These
men and women had come to the United States before 1924. Although legally
citizens of Japan, most considered themselves loyal to their adopted country.
In the weeks after the bombing at Pearl Harbor, some people pointed out that
these older Japanese were not United States citizens, but Japanese citizens,
even though they had lived in the U.S. for many years. However, few Americans
understood that at the time it was illegal for Japanese nationals to become
naturalized citizens.
[1986a] −
[1986b] (807) This fear was soon turned against the Nisei -- native-born
Americans whose ancestors came from Japan. As a result, most Japanese Americans
-- the great majority of whom lived in California -- were forced to leave their
homes and were taken to detention camps in other states, where they were
imprisoned until the end of the war. Most of the Nisei lost their homes and
businesses.
[1986c] (634) [Picture] In February 1942, a Japanese American schoolgirl
recalled coming home to find FBI agents searching her family's farm. One man
was reading her diary. Others were looking for flashlights or radios that they
suspected might be used to help the enemy. Her family, like the one above, were
tagged and sent to a "relocation camp" in the desert. Of the 117,000
Japanese Americans interned during the war, 71,000 were native-born Americans.
[1986d] −
[1986e] −
[1986f] (499) After Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor, over 100,000
Japanese (most of them American citizens) were removed from the West Coast to
ten detention camps inland. They were treated almost like prisoners and kept
behind barbed-wire fences. Both President Franklin Roosevelt and the Supreme
Court approved.
[1987a] −
[1987b] −
[1988] (619) As a result, more than 100,000 Nisei were rounded
up and put into special camps. (T116) Immediately, 110,000 Japanese (70,000 of
them American-born) were excluded from the west coast. They were forced to
leave their homes. They lost nearly 500 million dollars in income yearly.
[1989a] (634) [Picture] In February 1942, a Japanese American schoolgirl
recalled coming home to find FBI agents searching her family's farm. One man
was reading her diary. Others were looking for flashlights or radios that they
suspected might be used to help the enemy. Her family, like the one above, were
tagged and sent to a "relocation camp" in the desert. Of the 117,000
Japanese Americans interned during the war, 71,000 were native-born Americans.
[VISUAL EVIDENCE. The American Civil Liberties Union called the
Japanese-American internment "the worst single wholesale violation of
civil liberties of American Citizens in our history."]
[1989b] −
[1990a] (674) Home for the evacuees, two thirds of whom were American-born
citizens, was a wooden barracks, with one room per family.
[1990b] (571) Japanese and Americans of Japanese ancestry had long faced
discrimination on the West Coast. After Pearl Harbor their situation became
much worse. For no good reason, other citizens blamed them for what the
Japanese militarists had done and even began to suspect that they might be
helping the enemy across the Pacific. Western politicians and frightened military
men pressured FDR to remove them from the coastal states. President Roosevelt
gave in. Early in 1942, under the excuse of national security, 110,000 Japanese
Americans were rounded up. There was no evidence that these Americans were
disloyal. (571) [Picture] Ordered to leave their homes and businesses on short
notice by order of the united States government, bewildered Japanese Americans
wait in Los Angeles for a train to take them to an internment camp.
[1990c] (665) Some 70,000 of the 110,000 who were forced to give up their
homes, businesses, and jobs had been born in the United States and were
American citizens.
[1990d] (862) At the time of Pearl Harbor, about 127,000 Japanese-Americans
lived in the United States, most on the West Coast. About 80,000 were nisei
(Japanese born in the United States and holding American citizenship) and
sansei (the sons and daughters of nisei); the rest were issei (aliens born in
Japan who were ineligible for U.S. citizenship).
[1990e] (647) The citizens among them were denied their basic constitutional
rights. Most Japanese Americans were not allowed to return to their homes until
the end of the war.
[1991] (612) Most people of Japanese descent living in the
United States at the time of Pearl Harbor had been born as American citizens.
In February 1942, President Roosevelt ordered the army to round up some 110,000
citizens and aliens of Japanese ancestry.
[1992a] −
[1992b]
[1992c] (289) WHEN JAPAN BOMBED Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, about one
hundred twenty thousand Japanese were living in the United States. Nearly
eighty thousand of them had been born in the United States and were American
citizens.
[1992d] (677) Japanese and Americans of Japanese ancestry had long faced
discrimination on the West Coast. After Pearl Harbor their situation became
much worse. For no good reason, other citizens blamed them for what the
Japanese militarists had done and even began to suspect that they might be
helping the enemy across the Pacific. Western politicians and frightened military
men pressured FDR to remove them from the coastal states. President Roosevelt
gave in. Early in 1942, under the excuse of national security, 110,000 Japanese
Americans were rounded up. There was no evidence that these Americans were
disloyal. (678) [Picture] Ordered to leave their homes and businesses on short
notice by the United States government, anxious Japanese Americans wait in Los
Angeles for a train to take them to an internment camp.
[1992e] (677) Japanese and Americans of Japanese ancestry had long faced
discrimination on the West Coast. After Pearl Harbor their situation became
much worse. For no good reason, other citizens blamed them for what the
Japanese militarists had done and even began to suspect that they might be
helping the enemy across the Pacific. Western politicians and frightened
military men pressured FDR to remove them from the coastal states. President
Roosevelt gave in. Early in 1942, under the excuse of national security,
110,000 Japanese Americans were rounded up. There was no evidence that these
Americans were disloyal. (678) [Picture] Ordered to leave their homes and
businesses on short notice by the United States government, anxious Japanese
Americans wait in Los Angeles for a train to take them to an internment camp.
(677) Critical Thinking Activity: Demonstrating Reasoned Judgment Can the
internment of Japanese Americans during World War II be justified? The text
states, "In time of war it is harder than ever for a free nation to
preserve its freedoms." Ask students to decide if this statement justifies
the internment of Japanese Americans during World War II. What evidence would
support or dispute this idea? Have students offer their viewpoint in an essay.
[1992f]
[1992g] (473) Two thirds of those being moved were American-born citizens.
[1992h]
[1993a]
[1993b] −
[1994a] (356) To unleash such hatred against a foreign enemy could be
expected of any nation engaged in war. Less understandable was the decision in
early 1942 to single out 110,000 Japanese-Americans, two-thirds of them
citizens of the United States, remove them from their homes on the West Coast,
and confine them in inland camps. The decision reflected racial rather than
military considerations. It was the result of more than forty years of anti-Japanese
sentiment and racial tension on the West Coast. No removal was ordered in
Hawaii, where 32 percent of the population was of Japanese descent. Nor did
anyone seriously consider doing the same to German-Americans or
Italian-Americans. Earl Warren, attorney general of California, explained
"that we can, in dealing with the Germans and the Italians, arrive at some
fairly sound conclusions because of our knowledge of the way they live in the
community and have lived for many years. But when we deal with the Japanese we
are in an entirely different field and we cannot form any opinion that we
believe to be sound." Although there was no evidence of Japanese sabotage
on the West Coast after Pearl Harbor, that only confirmed the suspicions of
those who advocated removal. The head of the Western Defense Command, in
recommending removal to the secretary of war, concluded, "The very fact
that no sabotage has taken place to date is a disturbing and confirming
indication that such action will be taken."
[1994b] (364) At the time of Pearl Harbor, about 127,000 Japanese-Americans
lived in the United States, most on the West Coast. About 80,000 were nisei
(Japanese born in the United States and holding American citizenship) and
sansei (the sons and daughters of nisei); the rest were issei (aliens born in
Japan who were ineligible for U.S. citizenship).
[1994c] (498) Much of the anger that Americans felt about Japan's surprise
attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941 was directed at Japanese Americans. Over 110,000
Japanese Americans, two-thirds of them American citizens, were forced to go to
detention camps after the attack. These camps consisted of poorly-built
barracks with no indoor plumbing or central heating. (563) World War II brought
tragedy to Japanese Americans. After the bombing of Pearl Harbor, some
Americans claimed that Japanese Americans on the West Coast were a danger to
the nation. They feared they might spy for the Japanese government. No evidence
was ever given to support this claim, but the government acted on this fear.
[1994d]
[1995a] −
[1995b] (228) (7) Many Americans protested the imprisonment of their fellow
citizens. (8) Eventually, some of the restrictions on the prisoners were
lessened. (9) Some were allowed to work in shipyards, factories, and government
offices. (10) But many thousands remained in camps until 1945, when the last
one was closed.
[1995c] −
[1996a] (758-9) Nisei. West Coast politicians pressed the Roosevelt
administration to evacuate the Japanese from their communities. It did not seem
to matter that about 80,000 were American citizens, called Nisei, and that no
evidence indicated that they posed any threat. "A Jap's a Jap . . ."
commented General John De Witt, commander of West Coast defenses. "It
makes no difference whether he is an American citizen or not." In
response, the War Department in February 1942 drew up Executive Order 9066,
which allowed the exclusion of any person from designated military areas. Under
De Witt's authority, the order was applied only on the West Coast against Japanese
Americans. By late February Roosevelt had agreed that both Issei and Nisei
would be evacuated. But where would they go? Concentration Camps. The army
began to ship the entire Japanese community to temporary "assembly
centers."
[1996b] (526) Of these people, 77,000 were Nisei, or native born citizens of
the United States.
[1996c] (225) Most of our students have studied about Hitler's concentration
camps but few know about the ordeal Japanese Americans faced in America during
World War II. The photograph in this exercise can engender a good class
discussion. (256) 4-13 INTERNMENT CAMPS FOR JAPANESE AMERICANS. During World
War II, over 110,000 Japanese Americans were rounded up and imprisoned in
internment camps for over three years. The U.S. Army was given the power to
arrest every Japanese American on the West Coast (without warrants,
indictments, or hearings) and forcibly remove them from their homes to be
"relocated" for the "security of the country." Read the
following quotes that reflect the action of the U.S. government: "I'm for
catching every Japanese in America, Alaska, and Hawaii now and putting them in
concentration camps. . . . Damn them! Let's get rid of them now!" (1)
CONGRESSMAN JOHN RANKIN, CONGRESSIONAL RECORD, 12/15/1941. "ALL PERSONS OF
JAPANESE ANCESTRY, BOTH ALIEN AND NONALIEN, WILL BE EVACUATED FROM THE ABOVE
DESIGNATED AREA BY 12 O'CLOCK NOON"
[1996d] −
[1996e]
[1997a] (305) Three-fourths of these were Nisei children born in the United
States of Japanese parents and therefore American citizens. The other fourth
the Issei, born in Japan were barred by law from becoming citizens. In 1944 the
Supreme Court upheld the forced evacuation on the grounds of military necessity.
[1997b] (546) Two-thirds were Nisei -- mainly children of Issei who were
citizens because they had been born in the United States. In February 1942, the
government decided that all Japanese Americans, citizens as well as aliens,
would be relocated from their homes and confined in internment camps located in
Arkansas and the Western states.
[1998a] (962) Nisei. West Coast politicians pressed the Roosevelt
administration to evacuate the Japanese from their communities. It did not seem
to matter that about 80,000 were American citizens, called "Nisei,"
and that no evidence indicated that they posed any threat. "A Jap's a Jap.
. . ." commented General John De Witt, commander of West Coast defenses.
"It makes no difference whether he is an American citizen or not." In
response, the War Department in February 1942 drew up Executive Order 9066,
which allowed the exclusion of any person from designated military areas, Under
De Witt's authority, the order was applied only on the West Coast against
Japanese Americans. By late February Roosevelt had agreed that both Issei and
Nisei would be evacuated. But where would they go? The army began to ship the
entire Japanese community to "assembly centers."
[1998b] −
[1998c] (886) At the time of Pearl Harbor, about 127,000 Japanese Americans
lived in the United States, most on the West Coast. About 80,000 were nisei
(Japanese born in the United States and holding American citizenship) and
sansei (the sons and daughters of nisei); the rest were issei (aliens born in
Japan who were ineligible for U.S. citizenship).
[1999a] −
[1999b] (764) Nisei. West Coast politicians pressed the Roosevelt
administration to evacuate the Japanese from their communities. It did not seem
to matter that about 80,000 were American citizens, called Nisei, and that no
evidence indicated that they posed any threat "A Jap's a Jap . . ."
commented General John De Witt, commander of West Coast defenses. "It
makes no difference whether he is an American citizen or not." In
response, the War Department in February 1942 drew up Executive Order 9066,
which allowed the exclusion of any person from designated military areas. Under
De Witt's authority, the order was applied only on the West Coast against Japanese
Americans. By late February Roosevelt had agreed that both Issei and Nisei
would be evacuated. But where would they go? Concentration Camps. The army
began to ship the entire Japanese community to temporary "assembly
centers."
[1999c] (835) Of the nearly 125,000 Japanese Americans in the country, about
three-fourths were Nisei, who had been born in the United States. The rest were
Issei, officially citizens of Japan although nearly all had lived in the United
States more than eighteen years. (836) Aware of rabidly anti-Japanese public
opinion, Roosevelt waited until after the off-year 1943 elections to allow
internees who passed a loyalty review to go home. A year later, the camps were
empty, each internee having been given train fare home and $25. Returning home,
the Japanese Americans discovered that nearly everything they owned was gone.
Stored belongings had been stolen. Land, homes, and businesses had been seized
by the government for unpaid taxes. Denied even an apology from the government,
Japanese Americans began to re-establish their homes and businesses. Decades
later, in 1988, and after several lawsuits on behalf of victims, a
semiapologetic federal government paid $20,000 in compensation to each of the
surviving sixty thousand internees.
[2000a]
[2000b] −