[1952]
[1961]
[1962]
[1963]
[1964a] (649) That this forced "relocation" was probably
unnecessary was shown by the loyalty of Japanese-Americans in Hawaii during the
war, and by the fine fighting record of "Nisei" (Japanese-American)
troops.
[1964b]
[1964c] (616) Yet Japanese-Americans in Hawaii were left unmolested without
incident throughout the war. A total of 17,600 Japanese-Americans served in the
armed forces. Their units, especially in Italy, established outstanding records
for bravery under fire.
[1964d]
[1964e]
[1965]
[1966a]
[1966b]
[1966c]
[1966d] −
[1966e] (741) Despite this discrimination, many Americans of Japanese
ancestry served with honor and courage in the United States armed forces.
[1967a]
[1967b]
[1967c]
[1968a] −
[1968b]
[1968c]
[1969a]
[1969b]
[1969c]
[1969d]
[1970]
[1971a]
[1971b]
[1972]
[1973]
[1974] (758) Driven from their homes into these American
versions of concentration camps, these loyal Japanese Americans needlessly
suffered loss of their freedom, homes, land, and dignity. This unfair treatment
did not deter over 33,000 Japanese Americans from enlisting and fighting
bravely for the United States.
[1975] −
[1976] −
[1978a] −
[1978b]
[1980]
[1981a]
[1981b] (314) The record of Asian Americans' loyalty
to their new nation has been outstanding.
During both world wars, Chinese Americans
and Japanese Americans worked and fought
in their nation's defense. For example, the
all-Japanese-American 442nd Regimental Combat
Team became one of the most highly decorated
combat units in World War II. This was despite
the fact that the families of most of these
soldiers were being held in relocation centers.
Following World War II, Chinese Americans,
Japanese Americans, Fillipino Americans,
and other Americans of Asian ancestry became
part of the nation's postwar boom. Today,
Asian Americans have achieved success in
the arts, the sciences, education, and industry.
In addition, newly arriving immigrants from
Asia are bringing their skills and abilities,
which are helping our society to grow and
prosper. (314) [Pictures] Japanese American
troops advancing in Italy during World War
II – 1943. Internment camp for Japanese
Americans – 1942.
[1982a] (338) Yet there had never been any real proof that these Japanese
Americans had been disloyal. Indeed, nearly all of the Nisei remained loyal,
patriotic American citizens despite their harsh, unfair treatment. Many of
those allowed to serve in the armed forces distinguished themselves for
bravery.
[1982b] (635) Despite this treatment, many citizens of Japanese ancestry
joined the armed forces. They served with great distinction. Many gave their
lives.
[1982c] −
[1982d]
[1982e] (620) Despite this bitter experience, almost all the
Japanese in America expressed only a desire to prove their loyalty. Moreover,
8000 Nisei -- children born in the United States of Japanese parentage --
enlisted in the armed forces, such as the infantry of the much decorated 442nd
Regimental Combat Team. (620) [Picture] In all, 8000 Japanese-Americans joined
the armed services despite the loss of their civil liberties a home. The 442nd
Combat Team posed for this photograph in 1944, while receiving citations for
bravery.
[1982f]
[1983a] −
[1983b] (167) "Go for Broke." Even as the Japanese Americans on the West
Coast were being herded into camps, others were joining the United States Army.
In Hawaii alone, 16,000 Americans of Japanese descent were drafted into the
Army. More than
three times that many eventually served in the United States armed forces in
World War II. At
first the Army did not accept Nisei (American-born offspring of Japanese
immigrants). When it changed its policy, thousands -- determined to prove their
loyalty to the United States -- signed up. Among them were over a thousand young men
who were living in the relocation centers! The most famous Nisei units during
the war were the 100th Infantry Battalion and the 442nd Regimental Combat Team.
These units fought in Europe, first in Italy and then in France. From September
1943 to early February 1944, the 100th was in action almost continuously. In June 1944 the 100th became a
unit of the 442nd, which went into action at that time in Italy. The members of
this combat team fought with a bravery and reckless heroism that was summed up
in their battle cry, "Go for Broke." They took heavy casualties: more
than 1,700 killed and nearly 5,000 wounded. They were also among the most
decorated units in the United States Army. Commenting on the heroism of the Japanese
Americans, General Joseph Stilwell, one of the outstanding generals of World
War II, declared. "The Nisei bought an awfully big hunk of America with
their blood." In later years many who served in the 100th and 442nd held important
positions in private and public life. Both Daniel Inouye and Spark Matsunaga,
United States senators from Hawaii as these words are written, proudly count
themselves as "graduates" of the 442nd. (167) [Picture] In 1944,
General Mark Clark and Navy Secretary James Forrestal review Nisei Troops in
Italy.
[1983c] (443) "Go for Broke." Even as the
Japanese Americans on the West Coast were
being herded into camps, others were joining
the United States Army. In Hawaii alone,
16,000 Americans of Japanese descent were
drafted into the Army. More than three times
that many eventually served in the United
States armed forces in World War II. At first
the Army did not accept Nisei (American-born
offspring of Japanese immigrants). When it
changed its policy, thousands -- determined.
to prove their loyalty to the United States
-- signed up. Among them were over a thousand
young men who were living in the relocation
centers! The most famous Nisei units during
the war were the 100th Infantry Battalion
and the 442nd Regimental Combat Team. These
units fought in Europe, first in Italy and
then in France. From September 1943 to early
February 1944, the 100th was in action almost
continuously. In June 1944 the 100th became
a unit of the 442nd, which went into action
at that time in Italy. The members of this
combat team fought with a bravery and reckless
heroism that was summed up in their battle
cry, "Go for Broke." They took
heavy casualties: more than 1,700 killed
and nearly 5,000 wounded. They were also
among the most decorated units in the United
States Army. Commenting on the heroism of
the Japanese Americans, General Joseph Stilwell,
one of the outstanding generals of World
War II, declared. "The Nisei bought
an awfully big hunk of America with their
blood." In later years many who served
in the 100th and 442nd held important positions
in private and public life. Both Daniel Inouye
and Spark Matsunaga, United States senators
from Hawaii as these words are written, proudly
count themselves as "graduates"
of the 442nd. (443) [Picture] In 1944, General
Mark Clark and Navy Secretary James Forrestal
review Nisei Troops in Italy.
[1983d] −
[1984]
[1985a] (734) Yet 17,600 Japanese Americans served in the armed
forces of the United States, many of them distinguishing themselves for
outstanding bravery under fire.
[1985b] (573) In 1943 the American military finally agreed to accept Japanese
Americans into service. Thousands of them enlisted, including 1200 men from
detention camps. Their war record was outstanding. None of the Japanese
Americans in the camps were ever found to pose a threat to the country.
[1985c] (250) In June, 1941, before America's official entry into World War
II, Fred Korematsu tried to enlist in the Navy. Although the Navy was actively
recruiting men in anticipation of entering the war, the service did not allow
Korematsu, an American citizen of Japanese ancestry, to enlist.
[1986a] −
[1986b] (807) Yet there had never been any real proof that these Japanese
Americans had been disloyal. Indeed, nearly all of the Nisei remained loyal,
patriotic American citizens despite their harsh, unfair treatment. Many of
those allowed to serve in the armed forces distinguished themselves for
bravery.
[1986c] (634) At first, Japanese Americans were barred from serving in the
military. Later, this policy was changed. More than 10,000 Japanese Americans
volunteered for service. Many were cited for their bravery. One unit of
Japanese Americans used the slogan "Go for broke!" It became a
popular rallying cry across the nation.
[1986d] −
[1986e] −
[1986f] (499-500) Despite this unfair treatment, many young Japanese
Americans volunteered to serve in the armed forces. They had an outstanding
record, especially in the fighting against Italy. 14. World War II proved to be
a turning point for most Asian Americans. During the war, many Chinese
Americans found work in the nation's airplane plants and factories. Japanese
Americans fought bravely in Europe.
[1987a] −
[1987b] −
[1988] (619) Despite this mistreatment, the Nisei showed their
loyalty to America. Thousands of Nisei were allowed to fight against the
Germans. Many of them received medals for bravery.
[1989a] (634) At first, Japanese Americans were barred from serving in the
military. Later, this policy was changed. More than 10,000 Japanese Americans
volunteered for service. Many were cited for their bravery. One unit of
Japanese Americans used the slogan "Go for broke!" It became a
popular rallying cry across the nation. SECTION REVIEW. What Do You Think? Why
do you think Japanese Americans were the only group forced to live in
relocation camps?
[1989b] −
[1990a] (674) Despite this unfair and humiliating treatment, Japanese
Americans remained loyal to their country. More than 1,200 internees petitioned
the President to give them a chance to serve. They were allowed to form the
100th Infantry Battalion, which became one of the most highly decorated
fighting units in United States military history. (674) Even so, thousands of
young Japanese Americans volunteered for the United States armed forces. The
mother at right, interned with her younger son in a "temporary" camp,
proudly displays a picture of her son in the United States Army.
[1990b] (571) Despite this humiliating treatment, 1200 men volunteered from
the camps to serve in the United States armed forces. In a segregated unit
these soldiers in the 442nd Regimental Combat Team fought heroically in Italy.
Another Japanese American battalion was recruited from Hawaii, where there was
no internment because there were so many Japanese.
[1990c] (665) In fact, when it was finally decided to accept Japanese
Americans into service in 1943, thousands of them signed up. One of their
groups, the 442nd Regimental Combat Team, was the most decorated combat force
in the army. Its motto, "Go for broke," accurately described the
reckless bravery of its members in combat in Italy and France. (665) [Picture]
General Mark Clark presents heroism awards to the Japanese American 442nd
Combat Team. *Why did some Americans find this regiment's achievements surprising?
[1990d] (863) One 6-year-old kept asking his mother to "take him back
to America." He thought his relocation center was in Japan. The evacuation
of the Japanese-Americans appears in retrospect to have been unjustified. Even
in Hawaii, where a much larger Japanese population existed, the government
attempted no evacuation, and no sabotage and little disloyalty occurred. The
government allowed Japanese-American men to volunteer for military service, and
many served bravely in the European theater. The 442nd Infantry Combat Team,
made up entirely of nisei, became the most decorated unit in all the military
service another indication of the loyalty and patriotism of the
Japanese-Americans.
[1990e] (647-8) In positive ways the American people proved themselves ready
and willing to fight a worldwide conflict. Army and navy recruiting offices
were flooded with volunteers, including the 350,000 women who served in the
American armed forces. Meanwhile, on the home front, women stepped in to fill
jobs left by men in arms. They also took many newly created jobs in heavy
industry and war plants where they built airplanes and fighting ships.
[1991] (613) Like some 33,000 other Japanese Americans, Peter
Ota eventually joined the armed forces. Beginning in 1943 the American
government began recruiting Japanese Americans for military service. Nisei
(nee-SAY) battalions -- units made up of second-generation Japanese Americans
-- served with distinction on European battlefields.
[1992a] −
[1992b]
[1992c] (290) Some young men won release from the camps by joining the U.S.
Army. The remainder, however, were forced to stay in the camps until President
Roosevelt rescinded the evacuation order and closed the camps in 1945.
[1992d] (677) Despite this humiliating treatment, 1200 men volunteered from
the camps to serve in the United States armed forces. In a segregated unit
these soldiers in the 442nd Regimental Combat Team fought heroically in Italy.
Another Japanese American battalion was recruited from Hawaii, where there was
no internment because there were so many Japanese.
[1992e] (677) Despite this humiliating treatment, 1200 men volunteered from
the camps to serve in the United States armed forces. In a segregated unit
these soldiers in the 442nd Regimental Combat Team fought heroically in Italy.
Another Japanese American battalion was recruited from Hawaii, where there was
no internment because there were so many Japanese.
[1992f]
[1992g] (674) Like some 30,000 other young Japanese Americans, Peter
eventually served in the armed forces. He spent his leaves visiting his father
and sister in the camps. . . . The Outcome. Even though they were treated
unfairly, Japanese Americans remained loyal to their country. More than 1,200
young Japanese American men petitioned the President to give them a chance to
serve. They formed the 100th Infantry Battalion. It became one of the most
highly decorated fighting units in United States military history. (See
"An Incident on the Italian Front" on page 792.) (792) Early in 1943,
the United States Army announced that it would accept 4,000 Japanese-American
volunteers to form a combat team. (It became the most decorated American
military unit.) Among the first to sign up was Daniel Inouye, a young Hawaiian.
During a German grenade attack, Inouye lost his right arm. Years later, he
became a United States senator. In the following excerpt from his
autobiography, he describes an incident during the fighting in Italy. (793-4)
VOCABULARY: Before you read the selection, find the meaning of these words in a
dictionary: laceration, malevolent, spasmodically. I never got used to it. Deep
down, I think no one did. We pretended to be calloused and insensitive because
we understood the fatal consequence of caring too much. You were no good to
your men; you were through as a soldier if you cared too much. But hidden in
the core of every man's being, there must have been a wound, a laceration of
the spirit, and the abrasives of war rubbed against it every day and you
thought that even if you lived, and the years passed, it would never stop
bleeding. One morning I was leading a forward patrol along a gentle slope
toward an ancient farmhouse that sat deserted and glaring in the sun. Only it
wasn't deserted. We were barely thirty yards away when a machine gun spat fire
from a darkened window and my lead scout was all but cut in half. The rest of
us hit the ground and I hollered for the bazooka while bullets from that dark
window kept seeking us out in steady; disciplined bursts of six. With a whoosh
and a glowing roar, our rocket tore into the weathered frames of the house and
it sagged crazily, and the machine gun was still. We ran forward in the sun,
throwing grenades as we closed on that malevolent window, crashing inside
before the dust of the explosion had fairly settled. Two of the Germans were
dead, torn to shapeless hulks by the bazooka. The third, an ammo [ammunition]
bearer, I guess, had been thrown back across the room, and he lay sprawled
against the wall, nearly senseless, one leg shredded and twisted completely
around. "Kamerad" [comrade], he whispered, smiling sadly
"Kamerad." I think I felt sorry for him. I don't know. I was thinking
about my scout, lying dead out there in the sun. Anyhow, it didn't matter. He
reached into his tunic and I thought he was going for a gun -- it was war; you
only had one chance to make the right decision -- and I pumped the last three
shots in my rifle clip into his chest. He jerked each time, and the last time,
as he toppled over, his hand sprang spasmodically out from his tunic, and he
held up a snapshot, clutching it in death. There was a woman in it, a pretty
woman, and two little kids, and there was a handwritten inscription:
"Deine Dichliebende Frau, Heidi."* [*German for "Your loving
wife, Heidi."] So I had made a widow and two orphans. I had to secure the
farmhouse and get a message back for a burial detail to come get our man. I had
a lot to think about. But sooner or later, you know, there comes the time when
a man has to face up to whatever it is that's hanging back there on the rim of
his conscience. I never remembered that German's face, only his hand clutching
the picture. For days I fought the image down, but it kept returning and, at
last, when they pulled us back to a rest area, I went to see the Chaplain, Hiro
Higuchi. "How can I help you, Dan?" He looked as desolate as I felt.
"I don't know." I shrugged. "I guess I just wanted to talk to
somebody." "I know. I know how it must be." We were quiet for a
while, then I said. "The thing is, it's as though there were two Dan
Inouyes, Chaplain. One of me is damn proud of the kind of soldier I am. I'm a
good squad leader. I'm tough. I do my job." "But?" "But I
can't get used to it, killing other men. Chaplain, I was brought up in the kind
of house where we had an obligation to a hungry dog or a sick cat. My parents
are gentle people, they never lifted a hand to any of us kids. I believe that
thou shalt not kill." "Don't ever stop believing it, Dan," he
said urgently. "Listen, this is not our way. We are fighting because we
have to. Our enemy does believe in killing. He has killed millions of blameless
people already, and he will kill us if we do not defend ourselves and our
liberty. There is no making peace with madmen. This is what you must remember.
You must fight -- yes, and kill -- to protect the kind of life that helped you
grow up to hate killing." I left his tent and walked in the darkness for a
while. It was good to talk with someone about it. I felt better. And then as I
picked my way over the stony terrain toward my own area, I remembered my father
sitting next to me on that crowded bus to Nuuanu,* and the plea in his voice
when he said, "Do not bring dishonor on our name." [*Nuuanu was the
Hawaiian town where Inouye first reported for duty.] And if there was one thing
I knew for sure, it was which side honor was on. [From the book, JOURNEY To
WASHINGTON by Senator Daniel K. Inouye with Lawrence Elliott C 1967. used by
permission of the publisher, Prentice Hall/A division of Simon & Schuster,
Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N.J. 07632.] THINKING ABOUT THE SELECTION. 1. Why did
Inouye and his fellow soldiers pretend to be calloused? 2. Why did Inouye shoot
the wounded German? 3. Defending a Position Do you agree with the advice the
chaplain gave Inouye? Why or why not?
[1992h]
[1993a]
[1993b] −
[1994a] (357) Despite such hysterical racial repression, many units of Nisei
(Americans of Japanese descent) performed heroically in the United States armed
forces.
[1994b] (865) One 6-year-old kept asking his mother to "take him back
to America." He thought his relocation center was in Japan. The evacuation
of the Japanese-Americans appears in retrospect to have been unjustified. Even
in Hawaii, where a much larger Japanese population existed, the government
attempted no evacuation, and no sabotage and little disloyalty occurred. The
government allowed Japanese American men to volunteer for military service, and
many served bravely in the European theater. The 442nd Infantry Combat Team,
made up entirely of nisei, became the most decorated unit in all the military
service-another indication of the loyalty and patriotism of the
Japanese-Americans.
[1994c] (498) [Picture] Despite the bitter experience of their internment
during World War II, Japanese Americans today are proud of their loyalty to the
United States. (563) Despite this harsh treatment, thousands of Japanese
Americans in the armed forces served loyally.
[1994d] (81) USING A GRAPH: THE ARMED FORCES IN WORLD WAR II. Many different
groups of Americans helped our country during World War II. African Americans,
Hispanic Americans, Japanese Americans, and women served in branches of the
armed forces. A. INTERPRETING A BAR GRAPH. The bar graph below shows the
participation of groups of Americans in the armed forces during World War II.
Look at the bar graph carefully. Use your textbook and the graph to answer the
following questions. 1. How many groups of Americans are shown in the bar
graph? Name them. 3: African Americans, women, Japanese Americans.
[1995a] −
[1995b] (228) (11) At first, Japanese-Americans, called Nisei, were not
allowed to volunteer for the armed forces. (12) When they were given that privilege in 1943,
they offered their services by the thousands as soldiers, spies, and
translators. (13)
They were willing to fight for their country even though they had been badly
treated by it. (14) As members of the armed forces, the Nisei established
records that have seldom, if ever, been equaled. (15) The all-Nisei 442nd
Combat Team earned more medals and citations for bravery that any other unit in
World War II. (16) Bradford Smith, in his book called American from Japan,
tells how useful the Nisei were as soldiers, spies, and translators. (17) For
example, Smith tells of the bravery of one Japanese-American, Terry Doi. (18)
Terry Doi was one of the first soldiers to land on Iwo Jima. (19) He took a
flashlight with him as he went into cave after cave. (20) He tried to persuade
the enemy to surrender. (21) He saved many American lives this way at the risk
of his own.
[1995c] −
[1996a] (759) Some Japanese Americans protested, especially when government
officials circulated a loyalty questionnaire that asked Nisei citizens if they
would be willing to serve in the armed forces. "What do they take us for? Saps?"
asked Dunks Oshima, a camp prisoner. "First,
they change my army status to 4-C [enemy
alien] because of my ancestry; run me out
of town, and now they want me to volunteer
for a suicide squad so I could get killed
for this damn democracy." Yet thousands
of Nisei did enlist, and many distinguished
themselves in combat.
[1996b]
[1996c]
[1996d] −
[1996e]
[1997a] (305) The Japanese remained in those camps for over three years.
There were strikes, petitions, mass meetings, refusal to sign loyalty oaths,
riots against the camp authorities. The Japanese Michi Weglyn was a young girl
when her family experienced evacuation and detention. She tells (Years of
Infamy) of bungling in the evacuation, of misery, but also of resistance. It
was a war waged by a government whose chief beneficiary despite volumes of
reforms -- was a wealthy elite. By 1941 three-fourths of the value of military
contracts were handled by fifty-six large corporations. Of $1 billion spent on
scientific research in industry, $400 million went to ten large corporations.
[1997b] (509) Hispanics were the most decorated of American ethnic groups,
while the Japanese American 442nd Regiment was the most decorated unit.
Japanese American soldiers fought loyally during the war in spite of the severe
discrimination suffered by their families back home.
[1998a] (963-4) Some Japanese within the camps protested, especially when
government officials circulated a loyalty questionnaire that asked Nisei
citizens if they would be willing to serve in the armed forces. "What do
they take us for? Saps?" asked Dunks Oshima, a camp prisoner. "First,
they change my army status to 4-C [enemy alien] because of my ancestry, run me
out of town, and now they want me to volunteer for a suicide squad so I could
get killed for this damn democracy. That's going some, for sheer brass!" Yet
thousands of Nisei did enlist, and many distinguished themselves in combat.
[1998b] −
[1998c] (887) One 6 year-old kept asking his mother to "take him back
to America." He thought his relocation center was in Japan. The evacuation
of the Japanese Americans appears in retrospect to have been unjustified. Even
in Hawaii, where a much larger Japanese population existed, the government
attempted no evacuation, and no sabotage and little disloyalty occurred. The
government allowed Japanese American men to volunteer for military service, and
many served bravely in the European theater. The 442nd Infantry Combat Team,
made up entirely of nisei, became the most decorated unit in all the military
service -- another indication of the loyalty and patriotism of the Japanese
Americans.
[1999a] −
[1999b] (764) Some Japanese Americans protested, especially when government
officials circulated a loyalty questionnaire that asked Nisei citizens if they
would be willing to serve in the armed forces. "What do they take us for?
Saps?" asked Dunks Oshima, a camp prisoner. "First, they change my
army status to 4-C [enemy alien] because of my ancestry, run me out of town,
and now they want me to volunteer for a suicide squad so I could get killed for
this damn democracy." Yet thousands of Nisei did enlist, and many
distinguished themselves in combat.
[1999c] (836) Some internees were able to leave the camps by working
outside, supplying much-needed labor, especially farm work. By the fall of
1942, one-fifth of all males had left the camps to work. Others volunteered for
military service, the other escape route from the camps. Japanese-American
units served in both the Pacific and Europe. The most famous unit was the
four-thousand-man 442nd Regimental Combat Team, which saw action in Italy,
France, and Germany. The men of the 442nd were among the most decorated in the
U.S. Army (see Individual Choices: Daniel Ken Inouye).
[2000a]
[2000b] −