| 1952 | |
| 1961 | (663) Earlier, it is true, the United States had excluded Chinese and most other Asiatics by specific laws. |
| 1962 | |
| 1963 | |
| 1964a | (524) There was continuing difficulty with Japan because of discrimination against Japanese immigrants on the Pacific Coast, and because of Japanese ambition to expand on the continent of Asia. On personal appeals from the President and Bryan, the state of California revised certain laws in order to reduce Japanese resentment. |
| 1964b | ? |
| 1964c | (377) Within a year after Japan's victory over a great European power, the San Francisco school board, in October, 1906, ordered the segregation of Oriental school children. This step was taken in response to the feelings of Californians against the 500 to 1,000 Japanese immigrants coming in each year, feelings which were intensified by lurid "Yellow Peril" articles in the Hearst and other newspapers. |
| 1964d | (473-4) Some Californians had become alarmed over the number of Japanese immigrants in their state. It was argued that the Japanese immigrants worked for very low wages and were therefore taking jobs away from native-born American workmen. As a result, resentment against the Japanese grew rapidly in those communities where they had settled. Because of this feeling, the San Francisco school board in 1906 decided to segregate Japanese children in the school system. The government of Japan protested immediately. The school segregation order, it said, was an insult to the Japanese people, since it seemed to indicate that Japanese boys and girls were not considered fit to associate with the sons and daughters of Americans. |
| 1964e | (528-9) Those who opposed the flood of newcomers also argued that, by their willingness to work for low pay, immigrants were lowering wages for American workers. Limits are placed upon the number of immigrants. As a result of these fears a cry arose that immigration should be restricted. Even as early as 1882 a law had been passed which forbade the immigration of Chinese laborers. Californians, in particular, objected to letting in Chinese, as well as Japanese, because they were willing to work for low wages. From time to time other laws were made restricting immigration. In 1917, for example, a law was passed barring immigrants who could not read. |
| 1965 | |
| 1966a | (526-7) Those who opposed the flood of newcomers also argued that, by their willingness to work for low pay, immigrants were lowering wages for American workers. Limits are placed upon the number of immigrants. As a result of these fears a cry arose that immigration should be restricted. Even as early as 1882 a law had been passed which forbade the immigration of Chinese laborers. Californians, in particular, objected to letting in Chinese, as well as Japanese, because they were willing to work for low wages. From time to time other laws were made restricting immigration. In 1917, for example, a law was passed barring immigrants who could not read. |
| 1966b | ? |
| 1966c | |
| 1966d | - |
| 1966e | (592-3) Relations between Japan and the United States are troubled. Japanese resentment against the United States was further inflamed by the treatment of Oriental immigrants on our West Coast. As we saw in Chapter 22, prejudice against Asians had resulted in the exclusion of Chinese immigrants during the late 1800's. Now politicians and labor leaders were demanding a ban on Japanese immigration, and western state legislatures were passing laws discriminating against Japanese already in the United States. The situation came to a head in 1906, when the San Francisco school board ordered all Japanese children to attend a separate school. Newspapers in Japan called this a national insult and demanded action from Roosevelt. (593) An immigration act in 1907 denied admission to all Japanese who did not possess proper passports. This law was interpreted to exclude Japanese who came from island possessions of the United States or from any country other than Japan. |
| 1967a | (535-7) When Americans began to fill up California, they objected to further Chinese immigration because the Chinese worked for such low wages. For the same reason, Americans also objected to Japanese immigration. In 1882, the United States government passed a law forbidding Chinese workers to enter the United States. In 1907, the United States persuaded the Japanese government to prohibit further Japanese immigration to America. |
| 1967b | |
| 1967c | |
| 1968a | - |
| 1968b | |
| 1968c | |
| 1969a | |
| 1969b | (456) After 1883, Japanese began to emigrate in larger numbers. In order to prohibit Japanese immigration, the United States government, after considerable controversy and diplomatic negotiations, persuaded the government of Japan to prohibit the emigration of laborers to the United States. Both of these restrictive acts had been promoted by western states, particularly by labor unions in the West. They feared competition from Oriental workers and claimed that Chinese and Japanese were an alien race in a land peopled primarily by Caucasians. (458) The Oriental communities of the west coast showed many of the same traits of enterprise and emphasis upon achievement and intellectual accomplishment. Both Orientals and Jews met greater discrimination as they became more successful by American standards. For example, California tried to restrict Japanese land ownership at a time (1913) when Japanese immigrants threatened to take over large stretches of land, such as the San Joaquin Valley. And, like Jews, Orientals have contributed a disproportionately large number of intellectuals and professional people to the society. (588) The attitudes and actions of some Americans who lived on the West Coast threatened good relations with Japan. In 1906, these Americans wished to exclude Japanese immigrants and to establish segregated public schools for Oriental children. Japan protested the segregation vigorously. |
| 1969c | |
| 1969d | (180) New workers kept flowing in from Europe and Asia. However, [eventually] immigration quotas were set, first upon the immigration of Chinese and Japanese, who, because of their low living standards, hurt the white labor market. |
| 1970 | |
| 1971a | |
| 1971b | |
| 1972 | (263) AN UNFAIR RULE. One day Kyo brought home a note from her school principal. The note said that a new rule had been passed ordering all Japanese children to go to a special Oriental school in Chinatown. The note made the Sakamotos unhappy and angry. Chinatown was miles away. There were no school buses. How would Kyo get to school? Besides, Kyo was just as much an American as any child in her school. (264) "Because," the principal said, "so many workers and farmers are angry with the Japanese. They think the Japanese make prices and wages go down. They are afraid that they will lose their jobs because Japanese will work for less. They demanded the rule. They don't want Japanese immigrants to live in San Francisco." |
| 1973 | (139) Japan's rapid rise to power aroused fears of a "yellow peril" in which a flood of Japanese immigrants, representing a vast source of cheap labor, would deprive white people of their jobs and in the process destroy Western civilization. In the United States, fears of this sort led the school board of San Francisco to bar all Japanese from the public schools in 1905. (164-5) This phrase, which the Japanese had taken from the Declaration of Independence of the United States as well as President Wilson's wartime speeches, was flatly rejected by Wilson, as well as by Australia and certain other Western countries. The leaders of these nations were afraid that the idea that all men are equal might be used by the Japanese to strike down existing immigration restrictions. Given the widespread talk of a "yellow peril" that had followed Japan's victories over China and Russia, immigration restrictions appeared to be a very sore subject in the West. |
| 1974 | |
| 1975 | - |
| 1976 | - |
| 1978a | - |
| 1978b | (443) Since the 1890s, America's West Coast had been attracting Japanese laborers. Whites in California became alarmed, as they had been a generation earlier by Chinese immigrants. Then, following the San Francisco earthquake of 1906, the city school board set up a separate, segregated school for Oriental children. Of course, this was a local matter over which the federal government had no control. But public opinion in Japan was outraged, and the Japanese government soon let Washington know it. |
| 1980 | |
| 1981a | |
| 1981b | (313) The achievements of the Chinese Americans and Japanese Americans were often resented by other Americans, and this led to discrimination in housing, employment, and education. |
| 1982a | (303) Earlier, it is true, laws and international agreements had excluded the Chinese, the Japanese, and most other Asians. |
| 1982b | |
| 1982c | - |
| 1982d | |
| 1982e | |
| 1983a | - |
| 1983b | (165) The history of mistreatment of Japanese in America is a long one. This was especially true in the states on the West Coast, where not only people but laws discriminated against them. In 1913 California made it illegal for Japanese aliens to own land in that state. Under federal law, Japanese were the only immigrants who could not become citizens, although, of course, any of their children born in the United States were citizens. (160) Congressman Raker (California): No one . . . can object to our taking time to assimilate those who are here. . . . Instead of that we find communities in this country that are as foreign as to language and thought as any city in any foreign land today. That must be avoided, and now is the time to stop. (326) Worse, in the face of a sharp increase in Japanese immigration to the West Coast of the United States, the American press began to run racist stories about the threat of the "yellow peril." In 1906 the San Francisco Board of Education ordered that the ninety-three Japanese children in that city must go to a separate school. This segregation order was an insult to Japanese racial pride, and stirred a storm of protest in Japan. |
| 1983c | (441) The history of mistreatment of Japanese in America is a long one. This was especially true in the states on the West Coast, where not only people but laws discriminated against them. In 1913 California made it illegal for Japanese aliens to own land in that state. Under federal law, Japanese were the only immigrants who could not become citizens. although, of course, any of their children born in the United States were citizens. (436) Congressman Raker (California): No one . . . can object to our taking time to assimilate those who are here. . . . Instead of that we find communities in this country that are as foreign as to language and thought as any city in any foreign land today. That must be avoided, and now is the time to stop. (639) Worse, in the face of a sharp increase in Japanese immigration to the West Coast of the United States, the American press began to run racist stories about the threat of the "yellow peril." In 1906 the San Francisco Board of Education ordered that the ninety-three Japanese children in that city must go to a separate school. This segregation order was an insult to Japanese racial pride, and stirred a storm of protest in Japan. |
| 1983d | |
| 1984 | (338) Troubles with Japan boiled to the surface in 1906 when the San Francisco School Board reflecting the anti-Orientalism of the West Coast, segregated all Chinese, Koreans, and Japanese in a special school. Japan protested this discrimination against its citizens. |
| 1985a | (598) The Japanese government objected to the treatment of Japanese immigrants who had been settling in growing numbers in California and other Pacific states. California was demanding exclusion of the immigrants and was taking steps to prevent them from owning land. San Francisco was segregating them in its schools. Newspapers warned of the "Yellow Peril," and there was even talk of a possible Japanese-American war. |
| 1985b | (492) The outcome of the Russian-Japanese peace talks in 1905 was not the only cause for anger between the Japanese and the Americans. The treatment of Japanese immigrants in California contributed to ill feelings between the United States and Japan. Many state and local laws in California treated Asians unfairly. Californians felt that laborers from China, Japan, and Korea would take American jobs because the Asians would work for less pay. In 1906 the San Francisco school board refused to allow Chinese, Korean, and Japanese children to attend regular public schools. Instead, the board sent them to separate schools. |
| 1985c | - |
| 1986a | - |
| 1986b | (767) Earlier laws and international agreements had excluded the Chinese, the Japanese, and other Asians. |
| 1986c | |
| 1986d | |
| 1986e | - |
| 1986f | (370) Some native-born Americans, those born in America, were prejudiced against newcomers. They did not like people who spoke different languages, dressed differently, or had different customs. Some native-born Americans felt the immigrants could never become Americans as the people before them had done. They were also afraid the newcomers would take away their jobs. . . . On the West Coast, the people talked of a "yellow danger." The Chinese and Japanese immigrants were often driven from their homes. (499) They, too, found many white Americans to be anti-Asian. The U.S, government pressured Japan to slow down Japanese immigration. In 1924 a new U.S. immigration law cut it off altogether. Despite these hardships, native-born Japanese Americans (Nisei) tried to get ahead by going to school. As relations between the United States and Japan grew worse in the 1930s, the distrust of Japanese Americans grew. |
| 1987a | |
| 1987b | - |
| 1988 | |
| 1989a | ? |
| 1989b | |
| 1990a | (540) When Japanese immigration to the United States increased as a result of the Russo-Japanese War, a wave of anti-Japanese agitation swept the West Coast. Many Americans resented the Asian newcomers because they competed for jobs and seemed so different in their customs and beliefs. In 1906, the San Francisco Board of Education placed the city's 93 Asian pupils in a separate school. |
| 1990b | ? |
| 1990c | (600) World War I had stirred feelings of hatred and intolerance for the enemy. These feelings did not die out when the war ended. With the enemy defeated, some people's feelings of hostility were turned against other targets racial and religious minorities, political ideas, and immigrants to the United States. |
| 1990d | (699) Like the earlier Chinese immigrants, they were met with nativist hostility and discrimination. Japanese workers were barred from factory jobs and shunted off to agricultural labor in California fields and orchards. In 1906, the San Francisco school board, claiming that Japanese children were "crowding the whites out of the schools," segregated them into separate schools and asked Roosevelt to persuade Japan to stop the emigration of its people. |
| 1990e | |
| 1991 | (460) Native-born Americans soon protested this influx of workers, and western states passed laws discriminating against the Japanese. The situation came to a head in 1906. In that year San Francisco's mayor, Eugene Schmitz, ordered that Japanese (as well as Chinese and Korean) students be placed in a separate "Oriental Public School." Newspapers in Japan called this an insult, and anti-American riots broke out. |
| 1992a | - |
| 1992b | |
| 1992c | (265) SEVERAL MOVEMENTS COALESCED in the early 1920s to make possible the passage of laws stemming the flood of immigrants from Europe, Ireland, and Asia, a flood that had been transforming America's big cities since before the Civil War. Emerging from a costly world war, many Americans feared that the millions of new immigrants would take jobs from the native-born. |
| 1992d | (580) They had strong racial, religious, and ethnic prejudices. In fact, they wanted to cut down immigration from Russia, Poland, Italy, and the other countries of eastern and southern Europe. The nation had been enriched by the thousands who had come here from those countries between 1890 and 1910. But the restrictionists had an odd theory of their own about "superior" and "inferior" races. They pretended that it was a science. Really it was only a way of dressing up their prejudices. |
| 1992e | (580) They had strong racial, religious, and ethnic prejudices. In fact, they wanted to cut down immigration from Russia, Poland, Italy, and the other countries of eastern and southern Europe. The nation had been enriched by the thousands who had come here from those countries between 1890 and 1910. But the restrictionists had an odd theory of their own about "superior" and "inferior" races. They pretended that it was a science. Really it was only a way of dressing up their prejudices. |
| 1992f | |
| 1992g | (289) After the Russo-Japanese War, Japanese immigration to the United States had increased. In reaction, a wave of anti-Japanese feeling swept the West Coast. Many Americans resented the Asian newcomers because they competed for jobs and had unfamiliar customs and beliefs. In 1906, the San Francisco Board of Education placed the city's 93 Asian pupils, some of whom were young adults, in a separate school. Japan protested this as a racial insult. (292) In California, legislators seeking favor with local growers and labor groups had passed a law barring noncitizens from owning land. Japanese immigrants, the chief targets of the law, protested angrily. Never an aggressive opponent of racism, President Wilson played down the issue. In doing so, he ignored a treaty obligation to deal fairly with Japanese immigrants. But public outrage in Japan moved the President to act. |
| 1993a | (558) Americans of Color. Within that majority were Japanese, Chinese, and Korean immigrants who were denied the chance to become citizens by the Naturalization Act of 1790, which limited that right to persons who were "white." Asian immigrants were also targets of race prejudice of particular severity on the West Coast. The children of those immigrants, citizens by virtue of their birth in the United States, suffered along with their parents. (581) In California anti-Japanese feeling rose. In 1906 San Francisco segregated Asian schoolchildren. The proud Japanese protested officially to Washington. |
| 1993b | - |
| 1994a | (272) Meanwhile, Japan's emergence as a great power increased anxiety on the West Coast about the "yellow peril." In October 1906 the San Francisco Board of Education ordered that the ninety-three Japanese children in the city be segregated in a separate school. |
| 1994b | (695-6) Like the earlier Chinese immigrants, they were met with nativist hostility and discrimination. Japanese workers were barred from factory jobs and shunted off to agricultural labor in California fields and orchards. In 1906, the San Francisco school board, claiming that Japanese children were "crowding the whites out of the schools," segregated them into separate schools and asked Roosevelt to persuade Japan to stop the emigration of its people. |
| 1994c | (498) In many ways, the history of the Japanese in the United States is a study of prejudice and intolerance. In the 1880s, California farmers looked to Japan as a new Source of cheap labor. In response, thousands of Japanese flocked to the United States. In 1880, only 150 Japanese lived in California. By 1910, the number had climbed to 90,000. United States law said these immigrants, called Issei, could never become citizens. However, their children who were born in the United States, or Nisei, were citizens. . . . As Japanese prospered, white Californians felt economically threatened and often attacked them. In 1906, San Francisco required Japanese Students to attend segregated Schools. |
| 1994d | |
| 1995a | - |
| 1995b | |
| 1995c | - |
| 1996a | (625) In 1906, rising Japanese immigration led San Francisco school authorities to place the city's 93 Asian students in a separate school. In Japan citizens talked of war over the insult. |
| 1996b | (433) Japanese-American relations also became tense over the treatment of Japanese citizens in the United States. In 1906, the San Francisco School Board, reflecting the anti-Asian bias of many West Coast Americans, ordered the segregation of all Chinese, Koreans, and Japanese in a special school. Tokyo protested the discrimination against its citizens. |
| 1996c | |
| 1996d | - |
| 1996e | |
| 1997a | |
| 1997b | (284) Some opponents of immigration claimed to have scientific evidence proving that some racial or ethnic groups were superior to others. In particular they asserted that the Anglo-Saxon and Nordic peoples of northern and western Europe were smarter, stronger, and more moral than the Slavs and Mediterranean peoples of southern and eastern Europe. Jews, African Americans, and Asians, they claimed, were even more inferior. (301) In addition to shifting the balance of power in China, the settlement of the Russo-Japanese War also had worldwide implications for racial politics. That an Asian people, the Japanese, had humiliated a white people, the Russians, kindled new national and racial pride in both the Chinese and the Japanese. Japan reacted by protesting the 1906 segregation of Japanese children in San Francisco schools. |
| 1998a | (797) Japanese nationalists resented the peace treaty. Their anger surfaced in a protest lodged, of all places, against the San Francisco school board. In 1906, rising Japanese immigration led San Francisco school authorities to place the city's 93 Asian students in a separate school. In Japan citizens talked of war over the insult. |
| 1998b | - |
| 1998c | (715) Like the earlier Chinese immigrants, they were met with nativist hostility and discrimination. Japanese workers were barred from factory jobs and shunted off to agricultural labor in California fields and orchards. In 1906, the San Francisco school board, claiming that Japanese children were "crowding the whites out of the schools," segregated them into separate schools and asked Roosevelt to persuade Japan to stop the emigration of its people. |
| 1999a | - |
| 1999b | (629) Some Japanese nationalists resented the peace treaty for curbing Japan's ambitions in Asia. Their anger surfaced in a protest lodged, of all places, against the San Francisco school board. In 1906, rising Japanese immigration led San Francisco school authorities to place the city's 93 Asian students in a separate school. In Japan citizens talked of war over the insult. |
| 1999c | (555) Whites in the West, especially organized labor, had come to view Japanese immigrants in much the same way as they had earlier viewed immigrants from China. (659) An order by the San Francisco school board stipulated that students of Japanese parentage were to attend the city's segregated Chinese school. The Japanese government protested what it considered a serious insult, and Japanese newspaper headlines even hinted of war. |